diff --git a/gcc/rust/parse/rust-cfg-parser.cc b/gcc/rust/parse/rust-cfg-parser.cc
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..0a62dd11ede
--- /dev/null
+++ b/gcc/rust/parse/rust-cfg-parser.cc
@@ -0,0 +1,127 @@
+/* This file is part of GCC.
+
+GCC is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify
+it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
+the Free Software Foundation; either version 3, or (at your option)
+any later version.
+
+GCC is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
+but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
+MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
+GNU General Public License for more details.
+
+You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
+along with GCC; see the file COPYING3.  If not see
+<http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>. */
+
+#include "rust-cfg-parser.h"
+#include "rust-lex.h"
+#include "rust-parse.h"
+#include "rust-session-manager.h"
+#include "selftest.h"
+
+namespace Rust {
+bool
+parse_cfg_option (std::string &input, std::string &key, std::string &value)
+{
+  key.clear ();
+  value.clear ();
+
+  auto lexer = Lexer (input);
+  auto parser = Parser<Lexer> (lexer);
+
+  auto token = parser.peek_current_token ();
+  if (token->get_id () != IDENTIFIER)
+    {
+      return false;
+    }
+
+  key = token->get_str ();
+
+  rust_assert (parser.skip_token (IDENTIFIER));
+  token = parser.peek_current_token ();
+
+  switch (token->get_id ())
+    {
+    case END_OF_FILE:
+      // we're done parsing, we had a valid key, return happily
+      return true;
+    case EQUAL:
+      // We have an equal sign: Skip the token and parse an identifier
+      {
+	rust_assert (parser.skip_token (EQUAL));
+
+	auto value_expr = parser.parse_literal_expr ();
+	// We had an equal sign but no value, error out
+	if (!value_expr)
+	  return false;
+
+	if (value_expr->get_lit_type () != AST::Literal::LitType::STRING)
+	  return false;
+
+	value = value_expr->get_literal ().as_string ();
+	return true;
+      }
+    default:
+      return false;
+    }
+}
+} // namespace Rust
+
+#if CHECKING_P
+
+namespace selftest {
+
+void
+rust_cfg_parser_test (void)
+{
+  std::string key;
+  std::string value;
+
+  auto input = std::string ("key_no_value");
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE (Rust::parse_cfg_option (input, key, value));
+  ASSERT_EQ (key, "key_no_value");
+  ASSERT_TRUE (value.empty ());
+
+  input = std::string ("k=\"v\"");
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE (Rust::parse_cfg_option (input, key, value));
+  ASSERT_EQ (key, "k");
+  ASSERT_EQ (value, "v");
+
+  // values should be between double quotes
+  input = std::string ("k=v");
+  ASSERT_FALSE (Rust::parse_cfg_option (input, key, value));
+
+  // No value is an error if there is an equal sign
+  input = std::string ("k=");
+  ASSERT_FALSE (Rust::parse_cfg_option (input, key, value));
+
+  // No key is an error
+  input = std::string ("=");
+  ASSERT_FALSE (Rust::parse_cfg_option (input, key, value));
+
+  input = std::string ("=value");
+  ASSERT_FALSE (Rust::parse_cfg_option (input, key, value));
+
+  // values that are not string literals are an error
+  input = std::string ("key=b\"a\"");
+  ASSERT_FALSE (Rust::parse_cfg_option (input, key, value));
+
+  input = std::string ("key='v'");
+  ASSERT_FALSE (Rust::parse_cfg_option (input, key, value));
+
+  input = std::string ("key=155");
+  ASSERT_FALSE (Rust::parse_cfg_option (input, key, value));
+
+  input = std::string ("key=3.14");
+  ASSERT_FALSE (Rust::parse_cfg_option (input, key, value));
+
+  // kebab case is not valid for an identifier
+  input = std::string ("key-no-value");
+  ASSERT_FALSE (Rust::parse_cfg_option (input, key, value));
+}
+} // namespace selftest
+
+#endif // CHECKING_P
diff --git a/gcc/rust/parse/rust-cfg-parser.h b/gcc/rust/parse/rust-cfg-parser.h
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..0d64016f86d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/gcc/rust/parse/rust-cfg-parser.h
@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+/* This file is part of GCC.
+
+GCC is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify
+it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
+the Free Software Foundation; either version 3, or (at your option)
+any later version.
+
+GCC is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
+but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
+MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
+GNU General Public License for more details.
+
+You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
+along with GCC; see the file COPYING3.  If not see
+<http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>. */
+
+#ifndef RUST_CFG_PARSER_H
+#define RUST_CFG_PARSER_H
+
+#include "rust-system.h"
+
+namespace Rust {
+/**
+ * Parse a `key` or `key="value"` pair given to the `-frust-cfg` compiler
+ * option.
+ *
+ * The format is as follows:
+ *
+ * -frust-cfg=<input>
+ *
+ * cfg_input: identifier | identifier '=' '"' identifier '"'
+ *
+ * @param input User input given to the -frust-cfg option
+ * @param key String in which to store the parsed `key`.
+ * @param value String in which to store the parsed `value` if it exists
+ *
+ * @return false if the given input was invalid, true otherwise
+ */
+bool
+parse_cfg_option (std::string &input, std::string &key, std::string &value);
+} // namespace Rust
+
+#if CHECKING_P
+
+namespace selftest {
+extern void
+rust_cfg_parser_test (void);
+} // namespace selftest
+
+#endif // CHECKING_P
+
+#endif // RUST_CFG_PARSER_H
diff --git a/gcc/rust/parse/rust-parse-impl.h b/gcc/rust/parse/rust-parse-impl.h
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..84a27816b11
--- /dev/null
+++ b/gcc/rust/parse/rust-parse-impl.h
@@ -0,0 +1,6896 @@
+// Copyright (C) 2020-2022 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+
+// This file is part of GCC.
+
+// GCC is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it under
+// the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free
+// Software Foundation; either version 3, or (at your option) any later
+// version.
+
+// GCC is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY
+// WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or
+// FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the GNU General Public License
+// for more details.
+
+// You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
+// along with GCC; see the file COPYING3.  If not see
+// <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.
+
+/* Template implementation for Rust::Parser. Previously in rust-parse.cc (before
+ * Parser was template). Separated from rust-parse.h for readability. */
+
+/* DO NOT INCLUDE ANYWHERE - this is automatically included with rust-parse.h
+ * This is also the reason why there are no include guards. */
+
+#define INCLUDE_ALGORITHM
+#include "rust-diagnostics.h"
+#include "rust-make-unique.h"
+
+namespace Rust {
+// Left binding powers of operations.
+enum binding_powers
+{
+  // Highest priority
+  LBP_HIGHEST = 100,
+
+  LBP_PATH = 95,
+
+  LBP_METHOD_CALL = 90,
+
+  LBP_FIELD_EXPR = 85,
+
+  LBP_FUNCTION_CALL = 80,
+  LBP_ARRAY_REF = LBP_FUNCTION_CALL,
+
+  LBP_QUESTION_MARK = 75, // unary postfix - counts as left
+
+  LBP_UNARY_PLUS = 70,		    // Used only when the null denotation is +
+  LBP_UNARY_MINUS = LBP_UNARY_PLUS, // Used only when the null denotation is -
+  LBP_UNARY_ASTERISK = LBP_UNARY_PLUS, // deref operator - unary prefix
+  LBP_UNARY_EXCLAM = LBP_UNARY_PLUS,
+  LBP_UNARY_AMP = LBP_UNARY_PLUS,
+  LBP_UNARY_AMP_MUT = LBP_UNARY_PLUS,
+
+  LBP_AS = 65,
+
+  LBP_MUL = 60,
+  LBP_DIV = LBP_MUL,
+  LBP_MOD = LBP_MUL,
+
+  LBP_PLUS = 55,
+  LBP_MINUS = LBP_PLUS,
+
+  LBP_L_SHIFT = 50,
+  LBP_R_SHIFT = LBP_L_SHIFT,
+
+  LBP_AMP = 45,
+
+  LBP_CARET = 40,
+
+  LBP_PIPE = 35,
+
+  LBP_EQUAL = 30,
+  LBP_NOT_EQUAL = LBP_EQUAL,
+  LBP_SMALLER_THAN = LBP_EQUAL,
+  LBP_SMALLER_EQUAL = LBP_EQUAL,
+  LBP_GREATER_THAN = LBP_EQUAL,
+  LBP_GREATER_EQUAL = LBP_EQUAL,
+
+  LBP_LOGICAL_AND = 25,
+
+  LBP_LOGICAL_OR = 20,
+
+  LBP_DOT_DOT = 15,
+  LBP_DOT_DOT_EQ = LBP_DOT_DOT,
+
+  // TODO: note all these assig operators are RIGHT associative!
+  LBP_ASSIG = 10,
+  LBP_PLUS_ASSIG = LBP_ASSIG,
+  LBP_MINUS_ASSIG = LBP_ASSIG,
+  LBP_MULT_ASSIG = LBP_ASSIG,
+  LBP_DIV_ASSIG = LBP_ASSIG,
+  LBP_MOD_ASSIG = LBP_ASSIG,
+  LBP_AMP_ASSIG = LBP_ASSIG,
+  LBP_PIPE_ASSIG = LBP_ASSIG,
+  LBP_CARET_ASSIG = LBP_ASSIG,
+  LBP_L_SHIFT_ASSIG = LBP_ASSIG,
+  LBP_R_SHIFT_ASSIG = LBP_ASSIG,
+
+  // return, break, and closures as lowest priority?
+  LBP_RETURN = 5,
+  LBP_BREAK = LBP_RETURN,
+  LBP_CLOSURE = LBP_RETURN, // unary prefix operators
+
+#if 0
+        // rust precedences
+        PREC_CLOSURE = -40,     // used for closures
+        PREC_JUMP = -30,        // used for break, continue, return, and yield
+        PREC_RANGE = -10,       // used for range (although weird comment in rustc about this)
+        PREC_BINOP = FROM_ASSOC_OP,
+        // used for binary operators mentioned below - also cast, colon (type), assign, assign_op
+        PREC_PREFIX = 50,       // used for box, address_of, let, unary (again, weird comment on let)
+        PREC_POSTFIX = 60,      // used for await, call, method call, field, index, try, inline asm, macro invocation
+        PREC_PAREN = 99,        // used for array, repeat, tuple, literal, path, paren, if, while, for, 'loop', match, block, try block, async, struct
+        PREC_FORCE_PAREN = 100,
+#endif
+
+  // lowest priority
+  LBP_LOWEST = 0
+};
+
+/* Returns whether the token can start a type (i.e. there is a valid type
+ * beginning with the token). */
+inline bool
+can_tok_start_type (TokenId id)
+{
+  switch (id)
+    {
+    case EXCLAM:
+    case LEFT_SQUARE:
+    case LEFT_ANGLE:
+    case UNDERSCORE:
+    case ASTERISK:
+    case AMP:
+    case LIFETIME:
+    case IDENTIFIER:
+    case SUPER:
+    case SELF:
+    case SELF_ALIAS:
+    case CRATE:
+    case DOLLAR_SIGN:
+    case SCOPE_RESOLUTION:
+    case LEFT_PAREN:
+    case FOR:
+    case ASYNC:
+    case CONST:
+    case UNSAFE:
+    case EXTERN_TOK:
+    case FN_TOK:
+    case IMPL:
+    case DYN:
+    case QUESTION_MARK:
+      return true;
+    default:
+      return false;
+    }
+}
+
+/* Returns whether the token id is (or is likely to be) a right angle bracket.
+ * i.e. '>', '>>', '>=' and '>>=' tokens. */
+inline bool
+is_right_angle_tok (TokenId id)
+{
+  switch (id)
+    {
+    case RIGHT_ANGLE:
+    case RIGHT_SHIFT:
+    case GREATER_OR_EQUAL:
+    case RIGHT_SHIFT_EQ:
+      return true;
+    default:
+      return false;
+    }
+}
+
+/* HACK-y special handling for skipping a right angle token at the end of
+ * generic arguments.
+ * Currently, this replaces the "current token" with one that is identical
+ * except has the leading '>' removed (e.g. '>>' becomes '>'). This is bad
+ * for several reasons - it modifies the token stream to something that
+ * actually doesn't make syntactic sense, it may not worked if the token
+ * has already been skipped, etc. It was done because it would not
+ * actually require inserting new items into the token stream (which I
+ * thought would take more work to not mess up) and because I wasn't sure
+ * if the "already seen right angle" flag in the parser would work
+ * correctly.
+ * Those two other approaches listed are in my opinion actually better
+ * long-term - insertion is probably best as it reflects syntactically
+ * what occurs. On the other hand, I need to do a code audit to make sure
+ * that insertion doesn't mess anything up. So that's a FIXME. */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+bool
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::skip_generics_right_angle ()
+{
+  /* OK, new great idea. Have a lexer method called
+   * "split_current_token(TokenType newLeft, TokenType newRight)", which is
+   * called here with whatever arguments are appropriate. That lexer method
+   * handles "replacing" the current token with the "newLeft" and "inserting"
+   * the next token with the "newRight" (and creating a location, etc. for it)
+   */
+
+  /* HACK: special handling for right shift '>>', greater or equal '>=', and
+   * right shift assig */
+  // '>>='
+  const_TokenPtr tok = lexer.peek_token ();
+  switch (tok->get_id ())
+    {
+    case RIGHT_ANGLE:
+      // this is good - skip token
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      return true;
+      case RIGHT_SHIFT: {
+	// new implementation that should be better
+	lexer.split_current_token (RIGHT_ANGLE, RIGHT_ANGLE);
+	lexer.skip_token ();
+	return true;
+      }
+      case GREATER_OR_EQUAL: {
+	// new implementation that should be better
+	lexer.split_current_token (RIGHT_ANGLE, EQUAL);
+	lexer.skip_token ();
+	return true;
+      }
+      case RIGHT_SHIFT_EQ: {
+	// new implementation that should be better
+	lexer.split_current_token (RIGHT_ANGLE, GREATER_OR_EQUAL);
+	lexer.skip_token ();
+	return true;
+      }
+    default:
+      add_error (Error (tok->get_locus (),
+			"expected %<>%> at end of generic argument - found %qs",
+			tok->get_token_description ()));
+      return false;
+    }
+}
+
+/* Gets left binding power for specified token.
+ * Not suitable for use at the moment or possibly ever because binding power
+ * cannot be purely determined from operator token with Rust grammar - e.g.
+ * method call and field access have
+ * different left binding powers but the same operator token. */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+int
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::left_binding_power (const_TokenPtr token)
+{
+  // HACK: called with "peek_token()", so lookahead is "peek_token(1)"
+  switch (token->get_id ())
+    {
+      /* TODO: issue here - distinguish between method calls and field access
+       * somehow? Also would have to distinguish between paths and function
+       * calls (:: operator), maybe more stuff. */
+      /* Current plan for tackling LBP - don't do it based on token, use
+       * lookahead. Or alternatively, only use Pratt parsing for OperatorExpr
+       * and handle other expressions without it. rustc only considers
+       * arithmetic, logical/relational, 'as',
+       * '?=', ranges, colons, and assignment to have operator precedence and
+       * associativity rules applicable. It then has
+       * a separate "ExprPrecedence" that also includes binary operators. */
+
+      // TODO: handle operator overloading - have a function replace the
+      // operator?
+
+      /*case DOT:
+	  return LBP_DOT;*/
+
+    case SCOPE_RESOLUTION:
+      rust_debug (
+	"possible error - looked up LBP of scope resolution operator. should "
+	"be handled elsewhere.");
+      return LBP_PATH;
+
+    /* Resolved by lookahead HACK that should work with current code. If next
+     * token is identifier and token after that isn't parenthesised expression
+     * list, it is a field reference. */
+    case DOT:
+      if (lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == IDENTIFIER
+	  && lexer.peek_token (2)->get_id () != LEFT_PAREN)
+	{
+	  return LBP_FIELD_EXPR;
+	}
+      return LBP_METHOD_CALL;
+
+    case LEFT_PAREN:
+      return LBP_FUNCTION_CALL;
+
+    case LEFT_SQUARE:
+      return LBP_ARRAY_REF;
+
+    // postfix question mark (i.e. error propagation expression)
+    case QUESTION_MARK:
+      return LBP_QUESTION_MARK;
+
+    case AS:
+      return LBP_AS;
+
+    case ASTERISK:
+      return LBP_MUL;
+    case DIV:
+      return LBP_DIV;
+    case PERCENT:
+      return LBP_MOD;
+
+    case PLUS:
+      return LBP_PLUS;
+    case MINUS:
+      return LBP_MINUS;
+
+    case LEFT_SHIFT:
+      return LBP_L_SHIFT;
+    case RIGHT_SHIFT:
+      return LBP_R_SHIFT;
+
+    // binary & operator
+    case AMP:
+      return LBP_AMP;
+
+    // binary ^ operator
+    case CARET:
+      return LBP_CARET;
+
+    // binary | operator
+    case PIPE:
+      return LBP_PIPE;
+
+    case EQUAL_EQUAL:
+      return LBP_EQUAL;
+    case NOT_EQUAL:
+      return LBP_NOT_EQUAL;
+    case RIGHT_ANGLE:
+      return LBP_GREATER_THAN;
+    case GREATER_OR_EQUAL:
+      return LBP_GREATER_EQUAL;
+    case LEFT_ANGLE:
+      return LBP_SMALLER_THAN;
+    case LESS_OR_EQUAL:
+      return LBP_SMALLER_EQUAL;
+
+    case LOGICAL_AND:
+      return LBP_LOGICAL_AND;
+
+    case OR:
+      return LBP_LOGICAL_OR;
+
+    case DOT_DOT:
+      return LBP_DOT_DOT;
+
+    case DOT_DOT_EQ:
+      return LBP_DOT_DOT_EQ;
+
+    case EQUAL:
+      return LBP_ASSIG;
+    case PLUS_EQ:
+      return LBP_PLUS_ASSIG;
+    case MINUS_EQ:
+      return LBP_MINUS_ASSIG;
+    case ASTERISK_EQ:
+      return LBP_MULT_ASSIG;
+    case DIV_EQ:
+      return LBP_DIV_ASSIG;
+    case PERCENT_EQ:
+      return LBP_MOD_ASSIG;
+    case AMP_EQ:
+      return LBP_AMP_ASSIG;
+    case PIPE_EQ:
+      return LBP_PIPE_ASSIG;
+    case CARET_EQ:
+      return LBP_CARET_ASSIG;
+    case LEFT_SHIFT_EQ:
+      return LBP_L_SHIFT_ASSIG;
+    case RIGHT_SHIFT_EQ:
+      return LBP_R_SHIFT_ASSIG;
+
+    /* HACK: float literal due to lexer misidentifying a dot then an integer as
+     * a float */
+    case FLOAT_LITERAL:
+      return LBP_FIELD_EXPR;
+      // field expr is same as tuple expr in precedence, i imagine
+      // TODO: is this needed anymore? lexer shouldn't do that anymore
+
+    // anything that can't appear in an infix position is given lowest priority
+    default:
+      return LBP_LOWEST;
+    }
+}
+
+// Returns true when current token is EOF.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+bool
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::done_end_of_file ()
+{
+  return lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == END_OF_FILE;
+}
+
+// Parses a sequence of items within a module or the implicit top-level module
+// in a crate
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Item>>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_items ()
+{
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Item>> items;
+
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  while (t->get_id () != END_OF_FILE)
+    {
+      std::unique_ptr<AST::Item> item = parse_item (false);
+      if (item == nullptr)
+	{
+	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		       "failed to parse item in crate");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  // TODO: should all items be cleared?
+	  items = std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Item>> ();
+	  break;
+	}
+
+      items.push_back (std::move (item));
+
+      t = lexer.peek_token ();
+    }
+
+  return items;
+}
+
+// Parses a crate (compilation unit) - entry point
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::Crate>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_crate ()
+{
+  // parse inner attributes
+  AST::AttrVec inner_attrs = parse_inner_attributes ();
+
+  // parse items
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Item>> items = parse_items ();
+
+  // emit all errors
+  for (const auto &error : error_table)
+    error.emit_error ();
+
+  return std::unique_ptr<AST::Crate> (
+    new AST::Crate (std::move (items), std::move (inner_attrs)));
+}
+
+// Parse a contiguous block of inner attributes.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::AttrVec
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_inner_attributes ()
+{
+  AST::AttrVec inner_attributes;
+
+  // only try to parse it if it starts with "#!" not only "#"
+  while ((lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == HASH
+	  && lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == EXCLAM)
+	 || lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == INNER_DOC_COMMENT)
+    {
+      AST::Attribute inner_attr = parse_inner_attribute ();
+
+      /* Ensure only valid inner attributes are added to the inner_attributes
+       * list */
+      if (!inner_attr.is_empty ())
+	{
+	  inner_attributes.push_back (std::move (inner_attr));
+	}
+      else
+	{
+	  /* If no more valid inner attributes, break out of loop (only
+	   * contiguous inner attributes parsed). */
+	  break;
+	}
+    }
+
+  inner_attributes.shrink_to_fit ();
+  return inner_attributes;
+}
+
+// Parse a inner or outer doc comment into an doc attribute
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::Attribute
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_doc_comment ()
+{
+  const_TokenPtr token = lexer.peek_token ();
+  Location locus = token->get_locus ();
+  AST::SimplePathSegment segment ("doc", locus);
+  std::vector<AST::SimplePathSegment> segments;
+  segments.push_back (std::move (segment));
+  AST::SimplePath attr_path (std::move (segments), false, locus);
+  AST::LiteralExpr lit_expr (token->get_str (), AST::Literal::STRING,
+			     PrimitiveCoreType::CORETYPE_STR, {}, locus);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::AttrInput> attr_input (
+    new AST::AttrInputLiteral (std::move (lit_expr)));
+  lexer.skip_token ();
+  return AST::Attribute (std::move (attr_path), std::move (attr_input), locus);
+}
+
+// Parse a single inner attribute.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::Attribute
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_inner_attribute ()
+{
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == INNER_DOC_COMMENT)
+    return parse_doc_comment ();
+
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != HASH)
+    {
+      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		   "BUG: token %<#%> is missing, but %<parse_inner_attribute%> "
+		   "was invoked");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      return AST::Attribute::create_empty ();
+    }
+  lexer.skip_token ();
+
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != EXCLAM)
+    {
+      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		   "expected %<!%> or %<[%> for inner attribute");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      return AST::Attribute::create_empty ();
+    }
+  lexer.skip_token ();
+
+  if (!skip_token (LEFT_SQUARE))
+    return AST::Attribute::create_empty ();
+
+  AST::Attribute actual_attribute = parse_attribute_body ();
+
+  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_SQUARE))
+    return AST::Attribute::create_empty ();
+
+  return actual_attribute;
+}
+
+// Parses the body of an attribute (inner or outer).
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::Attribute
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_attribute_body ()
+{
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+
+  AST::SimplePath attr_path = parse_simple_path ();
+  // ensure path is valid to parse attribute input
+  if (attr_path.is_empty ())
+    {
+      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		   "empty simple path in attribute");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      // Skip past potential further info in attribute (i.e. attr_input)
+      skip_after_end_attribute ();
+      return AST::Attribute::create_empty ();
+    }
+
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::AttrInput> attr_input = parse_attr_input ();
+  // AttrInput is allowed to be null, so no checks here
+
+  return AST::Attribute (std::move (attr_path), std::move (attr_input), locus);
+}
+
+/* Determines whether token is a valid simple path segment. This does not
+ * include scope resolution operators. */
+inline bool
+is_simple_path_segment (TokenId id)
+{
+  switch (id)
+    {
+    case IDENTIFIER:
+    case SUPER:
+    case SELF:
+    case CRATE:
+      return true;
+    case DOLLAR_SIGN:
+      // assume that dollar sign leads to $crate
+      return true;
+    default:
+      return false;
+    }
+}
+
+// Parses a SimplePath AST node, if it exists. Does nothing otherwise.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::SimplePath
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_simple_path ()
+{
+  bool has_opening_scope_resolution = false;
+  Location locus = Linemap::unknown_location ();
+
+  // don't parse anything if not a path upfront
+  if (!is_simple_path_segment (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ())
+      && !is_simple_path_segment (lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id ()))
+    return AST::SimplePath::create_empty ();
+
+  /* Checks for opening scope resolution (i.e. global scope fully-qualified
+   * path) */
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION)
+    {
+      has_opening_scope_resolution = true;
+
+      locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+    }
+
+  // Parse single required simple path segment
+  AST::SimplePathSegment segment = parse_simple_path_segment ();
+
+  // get location if not gotten already
+  if (locus == Linemap::unknown_location ())
+    locus = segment.get_locus ();
+
+  std::vector<AST::SimplePathSegment> segments;
+
+  // Return empty vector if first, actually required segment is an error
+  if (segment.is_error ())
+    return AST::SimplePath::create_empty ();
+
+  segments.push_back (std::move (segment));
+
+  // Parse all other simple path segments
+  while (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION)
+    {
+      // Skip scope resolution operator
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      AST::SimplePathSegment new_segment = parse_simple_path_segment ();
+
+      // Return path as currently constructed if segment in error state.
+      if (new_segment.is_error ())
+	break;
+
+      segments.push_back (std::move (new_segment));
+    }
+
+  // DEBUG: check for any empty segments
+  for (const auto &seg : segments)
+    {
+      if (seg.is_error ())
+	{
+	  rust_debug (
+	    "when parsing simple path, somehow empty path segment was "
+	    "not filtered out. Path begins with '%s'",
+	    segments.at (0).as_string ().c_str ());
+	}
+    }
+
+  return AST::SimplePath (std::move (segments), has_opening_scope_resolution,
+			  locus);
+  /* TODO: now that is_simple_path_segment exists, could probably start
+   * actually making errors upon parse failure of segments and whatever */
+}
+
+/* Parses a single SimplePathSegment (does not handle the scope resolution
+ * operators) */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::SimplePathSegment
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_simple_path_segment ()
+{
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+    case IDENTIFIER:
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      return AST::SimplePathSegment (t->get_str (), t->get_locus ());
+    case SUPER:
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      return AST::SimplePathSegment ("super", t->get_locus ());
+    case SELF:
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      return AST::SimplePathSegment ("self", t->get_locus ());
+    case CRATE:
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      return AST::SimplePathSegment ("crate", t->get_locus ());
+    case DOLLAR_SIGN:
+      if (lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == CRATE)
+	{
+	  lexer.skip_token (1);
+
+	  return AST::SimplePathSegment ("$crate", t->get_locus ());
+	}
+      gcc_fallthrough ();
+    default:
+      // do nothing but inactivates warning from gcc when compiling
+      /* could put the rust_error_at thing here but fallthrough (from failing
+       * $crate condition) isn't completely obvious if it is. */
+
+      // test prevent error
+      return AST::SimplePathSegment::create_error ();
+    }
+  gcc_unreachable ();
+  /*rust_error_at(
+    t->get_locus(), "invalid token '%s' in simple path segment",
+    t->get_token_description());*/
+  // this is not necessarily an error, e.g. end of path
+  // return AST::SimplePathSegment::create_error();
+}
+
+// Parses a PathIdentSegment - an identifier segment of a non-SimplePath path.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::PathIdentSegment
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_path_ident_segment ()
+{
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+    case IDENTIFIER:
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      return AST::PathIdentSegment (t->get_str (), t->get_locus ());
+    case SUPER:
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      return AST::PathIdentSegment ("super", t->get_locus ());
+    case SELF:
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      return AST::PathIdentSegment ("self", t->get_locus ());
+    case SELF_ALIAS:
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      return AST::PathIdentSegment ("Self", t->get_locus ());
+    case CRATE:
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      return AST::PathIdentSegment ("crate", t->get_locus ());
+    case DOLLAR_SIGN:
+      if (lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == CRATE)
+	{
+	  lexer.skip_token (1);
+
+	  return AST::PathIdentSegment ("$crate", t->get_locus ());
+	}
+      gcc_fallthrough ();
+    default:
+      /* do nothing but inactivates warning from gcc when compiling
+       * could put the error_at thing here but fallthrough (from failing $crate
+       * condition) isn't completely obvious if it is. */
+
+      // test prevent error
+      return AST::PathIdentSegment::create_error ();
+    }
+  gcc_unreachable ();
+  // not necessarily an error
+}
+
+// Parses an AttrInput AST node (polymorphic, as AttrInput is abstract)
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::AttrInput>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_attr_input ()
+{
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+    case LEFT_PAREN:
+    case LEFT_SQUARE:
+      case LEFT_CURLY: {
+	// must be a delimited token tree, so parse that
+	std::unique_ptr<AST::AttrInput> input_tree (
+	  new AST::DelimTokenTree (parse_delim_token_tree ()));
+
+	// TODO: potential checks on DelimTokenTree before returning
+
+	return input_tree;
+      }
+      case EQUAL: {
+	// = LiteralExpr
+	lexer.skip_token ();
+
+	t = lexer.peek_token ();
+
+	/* Ensure token is a "literal expression" (literally only a literal
+	 * token of any type) */
+	if (!t->is_literal ())
+	  {
+	    Error error (
+	      t->get_locus (),
+	      "unknown token %qs in attribute body - literal expected",
+	      t->get_token_description ());
+	    add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	    skip_after_end_attribute ();
+	    return nullptr;
+	  }
+
+	AST::Literal::LitType lit_type = AST::Literal::STRING;
+	// Crappy mapping of token type to literal type
+	switch (t->get_id ())
+	  {
+	  case INT_LITERAL:
+	    lit_type = AST::Literal::INT;
+	    break;
+	  case FLOAT_LITERAL:
+	    lit_type = AST::Literal::FLOAT;
+	    break;
+	  case CHAR_LITERAL:
+	    lit_type = AST::Literal::CHAR;
+	    break;
+	  case BYTE_CHAR_LITERAL:
+	    lit_type = AST::Literal::BYTE;
+	    break;
+	  case BYTE_STRING_LITERAL:
+	    lit_type = AST::Literal::BYTE_STRING;
+	    break;
+	  case STRING_LITERAL:
+	  default:
+	    lit_type = AST::Literal::STRING;
+	    break; // TODO: raw string? don't eliminate it from lexer?
+	  }
+
+	// create actual LiteralExpr
+	AST::LiteralExpr lit_expr (t->get_str (), lit_type, t->get_type_hint (),
+				   {}, t->get_locus ());
+	lexer.skip_token ();
+
+	std::unique_ptr<AST::AttrInput> attr_input_lit (
+	  new AST::AttrInputLiteral (std::move (lit_expr)));
+
+	// do checks or whatever? none required, really
+
+	// FIXME: shouldn't a skip token be required here?
+
+	return attr_input_lit;
+      }
+      break;
+    case RIGHT_SQUARE:
+      // means AttrInput is missing, which is allowed
+      return nullptr;
+    default:
+      add_error (
+	Error (t->get_locus (),
+	       "unknown token %qs in attribute body - attribute input or "
+	       "none expected",
+	       t->get_token_description ()));
+
+      skip_after_end_attribute ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+  gcc_unreachable ();
+  // TODO: find out how to stop gcc error on "no return value"
+}
+
+/* Returns true if the token id matches the delimiter type. Note that this only
+ * operates for END delimiter tokens. */
+inline bool
+token_id_matches_delims (TokenId token_id, AST::DelimType delim_type)
+{
+  return ((token_id == RIGHT_PAREN && delim_type == AST::PARENS)
+	  || (token_id == RIGHT_SQUARE && delim_type == AST::SQUARE)
+	  || (token_id == RIGHT_CURLY && delim_type == AST::CURLY));
+}
+
+/* Returns true if the likely result of parsing the next few tokens is a path.
+ * Not guaranteed, though, especially in the case of syntax errors. */
+inline bool
+is_likely_path_next (TokenId next_token_id)
+{
+  switch (next_token_id)
+    {
+    case IDENTIFIER:
+    case SUPER:
+    case SELF:
+    case SELF_ALIAS:
+    case CRATE:
+    // maybe - maybe do extra check. But then requires another TokenId.
+    case DOLLAR_SIGN:
+    case SCOPE_RESOLUTION:
+      return true;
+    default:
+      return false;
+    }
+}
+
+// Parses a delimited token tree
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::DelimTokenTree
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_delim_token_tree ()
+{
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  lexer.skip_token ();
+  Location initial_loc = t->get_locus ();
+
+  // save delim type to ensure it is reused later
+  AST::DelimType delim_type = AST::PARENS;
+
+  // Map tokens to DelimType
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+    case LEFT_PAREN:
+      delim_type = AST::PARENS;
+      break;
+    case LEFT_SQUARE:
+      delim_type = AST::SQUARE;
+      break;
+    case LEFT_CURLY:
+      delim_type = AST::CURLY;
+      break;
+    default:
+      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
+			"unexpected token %qs - expecting delimiters (for a "
+			"delimited token tree)",
+			t->get_token_description ()));
+
+      return AST::DelimTokenTree::create_empty ();
+    }
+
+  // parse actual token tree vector - 0 or more
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TokenTree>> token_trees_in_tree;
+  auto delim_open
+    = std::unique_ptr<AST::Token> (new AST::Token (std::move (t)));
+  token_trees_in_tree.push_back (std::move (delim_open));
+
+  // repeat loop until finding the matching delimiter
+  t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  while (!token_id_matches_delims (t->get_id (), delim_type)
+	 && t->get_id () != END_OF_FILE)
+    {
+      std::unique_ptr<AST::TokenTree> tok_tree = parse_token_tree ();
+
+      if (tok_tree == nullptr)
+	{
+	  // TODO: is this error handling appropriate?
+	  Error error (
+	    t->get_locus (),
+	    "failed to parse token tree in delimited token tree - found %qs",
+	    t->get_token_description ());
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  return AST::DelimTokenTree::create_empty ();
+	}
+
+      token_trees_in_tree.push_back (std::move (tok_tree));
+
+      // lexer.skip_token();
+      t = lexer.peek_token ();
+    }
+  auto delim_close
+    = std::unique_ptr<AST::Token> (new AST::Token (std::move (t)));
+  token_trees_in_tree.push_back (std::move (delim_close));
+
+  AST::DelimTokenTree token_tree (delim_type, std::move (token_trees_in_tree),
+				  initial_loc);
+
+  // parse end delimiters
+  t = lexer.peek_token ();
+
+  if (token_id_matches_delims (t->get_id (), delim_type))
+    {
+      // tokens match opening delimiter, so skip.
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      // DEBUG
+      rust_debug ("finished parsing new delim token tree - peeked token is now "
+		  "'%s' while t is '%s'",
+		  lexer.peek_token ()->get_token_description (),
+		  t->get_token_description ());
+
+      return token_tree;
+    }
+  else
+    {
+      // tokens don't match opening delimiters, so produce error
+      Error error (t->get_locus (),
+		   "unexpected token %qs - expecting closing delimiter %qs "
+		   "(for a delimited token tree)",
+		   t->get_token_description (),
+		   (delim_type == AST::PARENS
+		      ? ")"
+		      : (delim_type == AST::SQUARE ? "]" : "}")));
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      /* return empty token tree despite possibly parsing valid token tree -
+       * TODO is this a good idea? */
+      return AST::DelimTokenTree::create_empty ();
+    }
+}
+
+/* Parses a TokenTree syntactical production. This is either a delimited token
+ * tree or a non-delimiter token. */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::TokenTree>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_token_tree ()
+{
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+    case LEFT_PAREN:
+    case LEFT_SQUARE:
+    case LEFT_CURLY:
+      // Parse delimited token tree
+      // TODO: use move rather than copy constructor
+      return std::unique_ptr<AST::DelimTokenTree> (
+	new AST::DelimTokenTree (parse_delim_token_tree ()));
+    case RIGHT_PAREN:
+    case RIGHT_SQUARE:
+    case RIGHT_CURLY:
+      // error - should not be called when this a token
+      add_error (
+	Error (t->get_locus (),
+	       "unexpected closing delimiter %qs - token tree requires "
+	       "either paired delimiters or non-delimiter tokens",
+	       t->get_token_description ()));
+
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      return nullptr;
+    default:
+      // parse token itself as TokenTree
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      return std::unique_ptr<AST::Token> (new AST::Token (std::move (t)));
+    }
+}
+
+// Parses a single item
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::Item>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_item (bool called_from_statement)
+{
+  // has a "called_from_statement" parameter for better error message handling
+
+  // parse outer attributes for item
+  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();
+
+  // TODO: decide how to deal with VisItem vs MacroItem dichotomy
+  /* best current solution: catch all keywords that would imply a VisItem in a
+   * switch and have MacroItem as a last resort */
+
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+    case END_OF_FILE:
+      // not necessarily an error, unless we just read outer
+      // attributes which needs to be attached
+      if (!outer_attrs.empty ())
+	{
+	  Rust::AST::Attribute attr = outer_attrs.back ();
+	  Error error (attr.get_locus (),
+		       "expected item after outer attribute or doc comment");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+	}
+      return nullptr;
+    case PUB:
+    case MOD:
+    case EXTERN_TOK:
+    case USE:
+    case FN_TOK:
+    case TYPE:
+    case STRUCT_TOK:
+    case ENUM_TOK:
+    case CONST:
+    case STATIC_TOK:
+    case TRAIT:
+    case IMPL:
+    /* TODO: implement union keyword but not really because of
+     * context-dependence crappy hack way to parse a union written below to
+     * separate it from the good code. */
+    // case UNION:
+    case UNSAFE: // maybe - unsafe traits are a thing
+      // if any of these (should be all possible VisItem prefixes), parse a
+      // VisItem
+      return parse_vis_item (std::move (outer_attrs));
+      break;
+    case SUPER:
+    case SELF:
+    case CRATE:
+    case DOLLAR_SIGN:
+      // almost certainly macro invocation semi
+      return parse_macro_item (std::move (outer_attrs));
+      break;
+    // crappy hack to do union "keyword"
+    case IDENTIFIER:
+      // TODO: ensure std::string and literal comparison works
+      if (t->get_str () == "union"
+	  && lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == IDENTIFIER)
+	{
+	  return parse_vis_item (std::move (outer_attrs));
+	  // or should this go straight to parsing union?
+	}
+      else if (t->get_str () == "macro_rules")
+	{
+	  // macro_rules! macro item
+	  return parse_macro_item (std::move (outer_attrs));
+	}
+      else if (lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION
+	       || lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == EXCLAM)
+	{
+	  /* path (probably) or macro invocation, so probably a macro invocation
+	   * semi */
+	  return parse_macro_item (std::move (outer_attrs));
+	}
+      gcc_fallthrough ();
+    default:
+      // otherwise unrecognised
+      // return parse_macro_item(std::move(outer_attrs));
+      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
+			"unrecognised token %qs for start of %s",
+			t->get_token_description (),
+			called_from_statement ? "statement" : "item"));
+
+      // skip somewhere?
+      return nullptr;
+      break;
+    }
+}
+
+// Parses a contiguous block of outer attributes.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::AttrVec
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_outer_attributes ()
+{
+  AST::AttrVec outer_attributes;
+
+  while (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()
+	   == HASH /* Can also be #!, which catches errors.  */
+	 || lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == OUTER_DOC_COMMENT
+	 || lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()
+	      == INNER_DOC_COMMENT) /* For error handling.  */
+    {
+      AST::Attribute outer_attr = parse_outer_attribute ();
+
+      /* Ensure only valid outer attributes are added to the outer_attributes
+       * list */
+      if (!outer_attr.is_empty ())
+	{
+	  outer_attributes.push_back (std::move (outer_attr));
+	}
+      else
+	{
+	  /* If no more valid outer attributes, break out of loop (only
+	   * contiguous outer attributes parsed). */
+	  break;
+	}
+    }
+
+  outer_attributes.shrink_to_fit ();
+  return outer_attributes;
+
+  /* TODO: this shares basically all code with parse_inner_attributes except
+   * function call - find way of making it more modular? function pointer? */
+}
+
+// Parse a single outer attribute.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::Attribute
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_outer_attribute ()
+{
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == OUTER_DOC_COMMENT)
+    return parse_doc_comment ();
+
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == INNER_DOC_COMMENT)
+    {
+      Error error (
+	lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+	"inner doc (%<//!%> or %</*!%>) only allowed at start of item "
+	"and before any outer attribute or doc (%<#[%>, %<///%> or %</**%>)");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      return AST::Attribute::create_empty ();
+    }
+
+  /* OuterAttribute -> '#' '[' Attr ']' */
+
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != HASH)
+    return AST::Attribute::create_empty ();
+
+  lexer.skip_token ();
+
+  TokenId id = lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ();
+  if (id != LEFT_SQUARE)
+    {
+      if (id == EXCLAM)
+	{
+	  // this is inner attribute syntax, so throw error
+	  // inner attributes were either already parsed or not allowed here.
+	  Error error (
+	    lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+	    "token %<!%> found, indicating inner attribute definition. Inner "
+	    "attributes are not possible at this location");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+	}
+      return AST::Attribute::create_empty ();
+    }
+
+  lexer.skip_token ();
+
+  AST::Attribute actual_attribute = parse_attribute_body ();
+
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != RIGHT_SQUARE)
+    return AST::Attribute::create_empty ();
+
+  lexer.skip_token ();
+
+  return actual_attribute;
+}
+
+// Parses a VisItem (item that can have non-default visibility).
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::VisItem>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_vis_item (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
+{
+  // parse visibility, which may or may not exist
+  AST::Visibility vis = parse_visibility ();
+
+  // select VisItem to create depending on keyword
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+    case MOD:
+      return parse_module (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
+    case EXTERN_TOK:
+      // lookahead to resolve syntactical production
+      t = lexer.peek_token (1);
+
+      switch (t->get_id ())
+	{
+	case CRATE:
+	  return parse_extern_crate (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
+	case FN_TOK: // extern function
+	  return parse_function (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
+	case LEFT_CURLY: // extern block
+	  return parse_extern_block (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
+	case STRING_LITERAL: // for specifying extern ABI
+	  // could be extern block or extern function, so more lookahead
+	  t = lexer.peek_token (2);
+
+	  switch (t->get_id ())
+	    {
+	    case FN_TOK:
+	      return parse_function (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
+	    case LEFT_CURLY:
+	      return parse_extern_block (std::move (vis),
+					 std::move (outer_attrs));
+	    default:
+	      add_error (
+		Error (t->get_locus (),
+		       "unexpected token %qs in some sort of extern production",
+		       t->get_token_description ()));
+
+	      lexer.skip_token (2); // TODO: is this right thing to do?
+	      return nullptr;
+	    }
+	default:
+	  add_error (
+	    Error (t->get_locus (),
+		   "unexpected token %qs in some sort of extern production",
+		   t->get_token_description ()));
+
+	  lexer.skip_token (1); // TODO: is this right thing to do?
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+    case USE:
+      return parse_use_decl (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
+    case FN_TOK:
+      return parse_function (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
+    case TYPE:
+      return parse_type_alias (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
+    case STRUCT_TOK:
+      return parse_struct (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
+    case ENUM_TOK:
+      return parse_enum (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
+    // TODO: implement union keyword but not really because of
+    // context-dependence case UNION: crappy hack to do union "keyword"
+    case IDENTIFIER:
+      if (t->get_str () == "union"
+	  && lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == IDENTIFIER)
+	{
+	  return parse_union (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
+	  // or should item switch go straight to parsing union?
+	}
+      else
+	{
+	  break;
+	}
+    case CONST:
+      // lookahead to resolve syntactical production
+      t = lexer.peek_token (1);
+
+      switch (t->get_id ())
+	{
+	case IDENTIFIER:
+	case UNDERSCORE:
+	  return parse_const_item (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
+	case UNSAFE:
+	case EXTERN_TOK:
+	case FN_TOK:
+	  return parse_function (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
+	default:
+	  add_error (
+	    Error (t->get_locus (),
+		   "unexpected token %qs in some sort of const production",
+		   t->get_token_description ()));
+
+	  lexer.skip_token (1); // TODO: is this right thing to do?
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+    case STATIC_TOK:
+      return parse_static_item (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
+    case TRAIT:
+      return parse_trait (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
+    case IMPL:
+      return parse_impl (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
+    case UNSAFE: // unsafe traits, unsafe functions, unsafe impls (trait impls),
+      // lookahead to resolve syntactical production
+      t = lexer.peek_token (1);
+
+      switch (t->get_id ())
+	{
+	case TRAIT:
+	  return parse_trait (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
+	case EXTERN_TOK:
+	case FN_TOK:
+	  return parse_function (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
+	case IMPL:
+	  return parse_impl (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
+	default:
+	  add_error (
+	    Error (t->get_locus (),
+		   "unexpected token %qs in some sort of unsafe production",
+		   t->get_token_description ()));
+
+	  lexer.skip_token (1); // TODO: is this right thing to do?
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+    default:
+      // otherwise vis item clearly doesn't exist, which is not an error
+      // has a catch-all post-switch return to allow other breaks to occur
+      break;
+    }
+  return nullptr;
+}
+
+// Parses a MacroItem (either a MacroInvocationSemi or MacroRulesDefinition).
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroItem>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_macro_item (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
+{
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+
+  /* dodgy way of detecting macro due to weird context-dependence thing.
+   * probably can be improved */
+  // TODO: ensure that string compare works properly
+  if (t->get_id () == IDENTIFIER && t->get_str () == "macro_rules")
+    {
+      return parse_macro_rules_def (std::move (outer_attrs));
+    }
+  else
+    {
+      // DEBUG: TODO: remove
+      rust_debug (
+	"DEBUG - parse_macro_item called and token is not macro_rules");
+      if (t->get_id () == IDENTIFIER)
+	{
+	  rust_debug ("just add to last error: token is not macro_rules and is "
+		      "instead '%s'",
+		      t->get_str ().c_str ());
+	}
+      else
+	{
+	  rust_debug ("just add to last error: token is not macro_rules and is "
+		      "not an identifier either - it is '%s'",
+		      t->get_token_description ());
+	}
+
+      return parse_macro_invocation_semi (std::move (outer_attrs));
+    }
+}
+
+// Parses a macro rules definition syntax extension whatever thing.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroRulesDefinition>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_macro_rules_def (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
+{
+  // ensure that first token is identifier saying "macro_rules"
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  if (t->get_id () != IDENTIFIER || t->get_str () != "macro_rules")
+    {
+      Error error (
+	t->get_locus (),
+	"macro rules definition does not start with %<macro_rules%>");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+  lexer.skip_token ();
+  Location macro_locus = t->get_locus ();
+
+  if (!skip_token (EXCLAM))
+    {
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  // parse macro name
+  const_TokenPtr ident_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
+  if (ident_tok == nullptr)
+    {
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+  Identifier rule_name = ident_tok->get_str ();
+
+  // DEBUG
+  rust_debug ("in macro rules def, about to parse parens.");
+
+  // save delim type to ensure it is reused later
+  AST::DelimType delim_type = AST::PARENS;
+
+  // Map tokens to DelimType
+  t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+    case LEFT_PAREN:
+      delim_type = AST::PARENS;
+      break;
+    case LEFT_SQUARE:
+      delim_type = AST::SQUARE;
+      break;
+    case LEFT_CURLY:
+      delim_type = AST::CURLY;
+      break;
+    default:
+      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
+			"unexpected token %qs - expecting delimiters (for a "
+			"macro rules definition)",
+			t->get_token_description ()));
+
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+  lexer.skip_token ();
+
+  // parse actual macro rules
+  std::vector<AST::MacroRule> macro_rules;
+
+  // must be at least one macro rule, so parse it
+  AST::MacroRule initial_rule = parse_macro_rule ();
+  if (initial_rule.is_error ())
+    {
+      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		   "required first macro rule in macro rules definition "
+		   "could not be parsed");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+  macro_rules.push_back (std::move (initial_rule));
+
+  // DEBUG
+  rust_debug ("successfully pushed back initial macro rule");
+
+  t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  // parse macro rules
+  while (t->get_id () == SEMICOLON)
+    {
+      // skip semicolon
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      // don't parse if end of macro rules
+      if (token_id_matches_delims (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id (), delim_type))
+	{
+	  // DEBUG
+	  rust_debug (
+	    "broke out of parsing macro rules loop due to finding delim");
+
+	  break;
+	}
+
+      // try to parse next rule
+      AST::MacroRule rule = parse_macro_rule ();
+      if (rule.is_error ())
+	{
+	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		       "failed to parse macro rule in macro rules definition");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+
+      macro_rules.push_back (std::move (rule));
+
+      // DEBUG
+      rust_debug ("successfully pushed back another macro rule");
+
+      t = lexer.peek_token ();
+    }
+
+  // parse end delimiters
+  t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  if (token_id_matches_delims (t->get_id (), delim_type))
+    {
+      // tokens match opening delimiter, so skip.
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      if (delim_type != AST::CURLY)
+	{
+	  // skip semicolon at end of non-curly macro definitions
+	  if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
+	    {
+	      // as this is the end, allow recovery (probably) - may change
+	      return std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroRulesDefinition> (
+		new AST::MacroRulesDefinition (
+		  std::move (rule_name), delim_type, std::move (macro_rules),
+		  std::move (outer_attrs), macro_locus));
+	    }
+	}
+
+      return std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroRulesDefinition> (
+	new AST::MacroRulesDefinition (std::move (rule_name), delim_type,
+				       std::move (macro_rules),
+				       std::move (outer_attrs), macro_locus));
+    }
+  else
+    {
+      // tokens don't match opening delimiters, so produce error
+      Error error (t->get_locus (),
+		   "unexpected token %qs - expecting closing delimiter %qs "
+		   "(for a macro rules definition)",
+		   t->get_token_description (),
+		   (delim_type == AST::PARENS
+		      ? ")"
+		      : (delim_type == AST::SQUARE ? "]" : "}")));
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      /* return empty macro definiton despite possibly parsing mostly valid one
+       * - TODO is this a good idea? */
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+}
+
+// Parses a semi-coloned (except for full block) macro invocation item.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroInvocation>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_macro_invocation_semi (
+  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
+{
+  Location macro_locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+  AST::SimplePath path = parse_simple_path ();
+
+  if (!skip_token (EXCLAM))
+    {
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  // save delim type to ensure it is reused later
+  AST::DelimType delim_type = AST::PARENS;
+
+  // Map tokens to DelimType
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+    case LEFT_PAREN:
+      delim_type = AST::PARENS;
+      break;
+    case LEFT_SQUARE:
+      delim_type = AST::SQUARE;
+      break;
+    case LEFT_CURLY:
+      delim_type = AST::CURLY;
+      break;
+    default:
+      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
+			"unexpected token %qs - expecting delimiters (for a "
+			"macro invocation semi body)",
+			t->get_token_description ()));
+
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+  Location tok_tree_locus = t->get_locus ();
+  lexer.skip_token ();
+
+  // parse actual token trees
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TokenTree>> token_trees;
+  auto delim_open
+    = std::unique_ptr<AST::Token> (new AST::Token (std::move (t)));
+  token_trees.push_back (std::move (delim_open));
+
+  t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  // parse token trees until the initial delimiter token is found again
+  while (!token_id_matches_delims (t->get_id (), delim_type))
+    {
+      std::unique_ptr<AST::TokenTree> tree = parse_token_tree ();
+
+      if (tree == nullptr)
+	{
+	  Error error (t->get_locus (),
+		       "failed to parse token tree for macro invocation semi "
+		       "- found %qs",
+		       t->get_token_description ());
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+
+      token_trees.push_back (std::move (tree));
+
+      t = lexer.peek_token ();
+    }
+  auto delim_close
+    = std::unique_ptr<AST::Token> (new AST::Token (std::move (t)));
+  token_trees.push_back (std::move (delim_close));
+
+  AST::DelimTokenTree delim_tok_tree (delim_type, std::move (token_trees),
+				      tok_tree_locus);
+  AST::MacroInvocData invoc_data (std::move (path), std::move (delim_tok_tree));
+
+  // parse end delimiters
+  t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  if (token_id_matches_delims (t->get_id (), delim_type))
+    {
+      // tokens match opening delimiter, so skip.
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      if (delim_type != AST::CURLY)
+	{
+	  // skip semicolon at end of non-curly macro invocation semis
+	  if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
+	    {
+	      // as this is the end, allow recovery (probably) - may change
+
+	      return std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroInvocation> (
+		new AST::MacroInvocation (std::move (invoc_data),
+					  std::move (outer_attrs), macro_locus,
+					  true));
+	    }
+	}
+
+      // DEBUG:
+      rust_debug ("skipped token is '%s', next token (current peek) is '%s'",
+		  t->get_token_description (),
+		  lexer.peek_token ()->get_token_description ());
+
+      return std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroInvocation> (
+	new AST::MacroInvocation (std::move (invoc_data),
+				  std::move (outer_attrs), macro_locus, true));
+    }
+  else
+    {
+      // tokens don't match opening delimiters, so produce error
+      Error error (t->get_locus (),
+		   "unexpected token %qs - expecting closing delimiter %qs "
+		   "(for a macro invocation semi)",
+		   t->get_token_description (),
+		   (delim_type == AST::PARENS
+		      ? ")"
+		      : (delim_type == AST::SQUARE ? "]" : "}")));
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      /* return empty macro invocation despite possibly parsing mostly valid one
+       * - TODO is this a good idea? */
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+}
+
+// Parses a non-semicoloned macro invocation (i.e. as pattern or expression).
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroInvocation>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_macro_invocation (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
+{
+  // parse macro path
+  AST::SimplePath macro_path = parse_simple_path ();
+  if (macro_path.is_empty ())
+    {
+      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		   "failed to parse macro invocation path");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      // skip?
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  if (!skip_token (EXCLAM))
+    {
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  // parse internal delim token tree
+  AST::DelimTokenTree delim_tok_tree = parse_delim_token_tree ();
+
+  Location macro_locus = macro_path.get_locus ();
+
+  return std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroInvocation> (
+    new AST::MacroInvocation (AST::MacroInvocData (std::move (macro_path),
+						   std::move (delim_tok_tree)),
+			      std::move (outer_attrs), macro_locus));
+}
+
+// Parses a macro rule definition - does not parse semicolons.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::MacroRule
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_macro_rule ()
+{
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+
+  // parse macro matcher
+  AST::MacroMatcher matcher = parse_macro_matcher ();
+
+  if (matcher.is_error ())
+    return AST::MacroRule::create_error (locus);
+
+  if (!skip_token (MATCH_ARROW))
+    {
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      return AST::MacroRule::create_error (locus);
+    }
+
+  // parse transcriber (this is just a delim token tree)
+  Location token_tree_loc = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+  AST::MacroTranscriber transcriber (parse_delim_token_tree (), token_tree_loc);
+
+  return AST::MacroRule (std::move (matcher), std::move (transcriber), locus);
+}
+
+// Parses a macro matcher (part of a macro rule definition).
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::MacroMatcher
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_macro_matcher ()
+{
+  // save delim type to ensure it is reused later
+  AST::DelimType delim_type = AST::PARENS;
+
+  // DEBUG
+  rust_debug ("begun parsing macro matcher");
+
+  // Map tokens to DelimType
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  Location locus = t->get_locus ();
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+    case LEFT_PAREN:
+      delim_type = AST::PARENS;
+      break;
+    case LEFT_SQUARE:
+      delim_type = AST::SQUARE;
+      break;
+    case LEFT_CURLY:
+      delim_type = AST::CURLY;
+      break;
+    default:
+      add_error (Error (
+	t->get_locus (),
+	"unexpected token %qs - expecting delimiters (for a macro matcher)",
+	t->get_token_description ()));
+
+      return AST::MacroMatcher::create_error (t->get_locus ());
+    }
+  lexer.skip_token ();
+
+  // parse actual macro matches
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatch>> matches;
+  // Set of possible preceding macro matches to make sure follow-set
+  // restrictions are respected.
+  // TODO: Consider using std::reference_wrapper instead of raw pointers?
+  std::vector<const AST::MacroMatch *> last_matches;
+
+  t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  // parse token trees until the initial delimiter token is found again
+  while (!token_id_matches_delims (t->get_id (), delim_type))
+    {
+      std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatch> match = parse_macro_match ();
+
+      if (match == nullptr)
+	{
+	  Error error (
+	    t->get_locus (),
+	    "failed to parse macro match for macro matcher - found %qs",
+	    t->get_token_description ());
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  return AST::MacroMatcher::create_error (t->get_locus ());
+	}
+
+      if (matches.size () > 0)
+	{
+	  const auto *last_match = matches.back ().get ();
+
+	  // We want to check if we are dealing with a zeroable repetition
+	  bool zeroable = false;
+	  if (last_match->get_macro_match_type ()
+	      == AST::MacroMatch::MacroMatchType::Repetition)
+	    {
+	      auto repetition
+		= static_cast<const AST::MacroMatchRepetition *> (last_match);
+
+	      if (repetition->get_op ()
+		  != AST::MacroMatchRepetition::MacroRepOp::ONE_OR_MORE)
+		zeroable = true;
+	    }
+
+	  if (!zeroable)
+	    last_matches.clear ();
+
+	  last_matches.emplace_back (last_match);
+
+	  for (auto last : last_matches)
+	    if (!is_match_compatible (*last, *match))
+	      return AST::MacroMatcher::create_error (
+		match->get_match_locus ());
+	}
+
+      matches.push_back (std::move (match));
+
+      // DEBUG
+      rust_debug ("pushed back a match in macro matcher");
+
+      t = lexer.peek_token ();
+    }
+
+  // parse end delimiters
+  t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  if (token_id_matches_delims (t->get_id (), delim_type))
+    {
+      // tokens match opening delimiter, so skip.
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      return AST::MacroMatcher (delim_type, std::move (matches), locus);
+    }
+  else
+    {
+      // tokens don't match opening delimiters, so produce error
+      Error error (t->get_locus (),
+		   "unexpected token %qs - expecting closing delimiter %qs "
+		   "(for a macro matcher)",
+		   t->get_token_description (),
+		   (delim_type == AST::PARENS
+		      ? ")"
+		      : (delim_type == AST::SQUARE ? "]" : "}")));
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      /* return error macro matcher despite possibly parsing mostly correct one?
+       * TODO is this the best idea? */
+      return AST::MacroMatcher::create_error (t->get_locus ());
+    }
+}
+
+// Parses a macro match (syntax match inside a matcher in a macro rule).
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatch>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_macro_match ()
+{
+  // branch based on token available
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+    case LEFT_PAREN:
+    case LEFT_SQUARE:
+      case LEFT_CURLY: {
+	// must be macro matcher as delimited
+	AST::MacroMatcher matcher = parse_macro_matcher ();
+	if (matcher.is_error ())
+	  {
+	    Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+			 "failed to parse macro matcher in macro match");
+	    add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	    return nullptr;
+	  }
+	return std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatcher> (
+	  new AST::MacroMatcher (std::move (matcher)));
+      }
+      case DOLLAR_SIGN: {
+	// have to do more lookahead to determine if fragment or repetition
+	const_TokenPtr t2 = lexer.peek_token (1);
+	switch (t2->get_id ())
+	  {
+	  case ABSTRACT:
+	  case AS:
+	  case ASYNC:
+	  case BECOME:
+	  case BOX:
+	  case BREAK:
+	  case CONST:
+	  case CONTINUE:
+	  case CRATE:
+	  case DO:
+	  case DYN:
+	  case ELSE:
+	  case ENUM_TOK:
+	  case EXTERN_TOK:
+	  case FALSE_LITERAL:
+	  case FINAL_TOK:
+	  case FN_TOK:
+	  case FOR:
+	  case IF:
+	  case IMPL:
+	  case IN:
+	  case LET:
+	  case LOOP:
+	  case MACRO:
+	  case MATCH_TOK:
+	  case MOD:
+	  case MOVE:
+	  case MUT:
+	  case OVERRIDE_TOK:
+	  case PRIV:
+	  case PUB:
+	  case REF:
+	  case RETURN_TOK:
+	  case SELF_ALIAS:
+	  case SELF:
+	  case STATIC_TOK:
+	  case STRUCT_TOK:
+	  case SUPER:
+	  case TRAIT:
+	  case TRUE_LITERAL:
+	  case TRY:
+	  case TYPE:
+	  case TYPEOF:
+	  case UNSAFE:
+	  case UNSIZED:
+	  case USE:
+	  case VIRTUAL:
+	  case WHERE:
+	  case WHILE:
+	  case YIELD:
+	  case IDENTIFIER:
+	    // macro fragment
+	    return parse_macro_match_fragment ();
+	  case LEFT_PAREN:
+	    // macro repetition
+	    return parse_macro_match_repetition ();
+	  default:
+	    // error: unrecognised
+	    add_error (
+	      Error (t2->get_locus (),
+		     "unrecognised token combination %<$%s%> at start of "
+		     "macro match - did you mean %<$identifier%> or %<$(%>?",
+		     t2->get_token_description ()));
+
+	    // skip somewhere?
+	    return nullptr;
+	  }
+      }
+    case RIGHT_PAREN:
+    case RIGHT_SQUARE:
+    case RIGHT_CURLY:
+      // not allowed
+      add_error (Error (
+	t->get_locus (),
+	"closing delimiters like %qs are not allowed at the start of a macro "
+	"match",
+	t->get_token_description ()));
+
+      // skip somewhere?
+      return nullptr;
+    default:
+      // just the token
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      return std::unique_ptr<AST::Token> (new AST::Token (std::move (t)));
+    }
+}
+
+// Parses a fragment macro match.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatchFragment>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_macro_match_fragment ()
+{
+  Location fragment_locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+  skip_token (DOLLAR_SIGN);
+
+  Identifier ident = "";
+  auto identifier = lexer.peek_token ();
+  if (identifier->has_str ())
+    ident = identifier->get_str ();
+  else
+    ident = std::string (token_id_to_str (identifier->get_id ()));
+
+  if (ident.empty ())
+    {
+      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		   "missing identifier in macro match fragment");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+  skip_token (identifier->get_id ());
+
+  if (!skip_token (COLON))
+    {
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  // get MacroFragSpec for macro
+  const_TokenPtr t = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
+  if (t == nullptr)
+    return nullptr;
+
+  AST::MacroFragSpec frag
+    = AST::MacroFragSpec::get_frag_spec_from_str (t->get_str ());
+  if (frag.is_error ())
+    {
+      Error error (t->get_locus (),
+		   "invalid fragment specifier %qs in fragment macro match",
+		   t->get_str ().c_str ());
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  return std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatchFragment> (
+    new AST::MacroMatchFragment (std::move (ident), frag, fragment_locus));
+}
+
+// Parses a repetition macro match.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatchRepetition>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_macro_match_repetition ()
+{
+  skip_token (DOLLAR_SIGN);
+  skip_token (LEFT_PAREN);
+
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatch>> matches;
+
+  // parse required first macro match
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatch> initial_match = parse_macro_match ();
+  if (initial_match == nullptr)
+    {
+      Error error (
+	lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+	"could not parse required first macro match in macro match repetition");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+  matches.push_back (std::move (initial_match));
+
+  // parse optional later macro matches
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_PAREN)
+    {
+      std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatch> match = parse_macro_match ();
+
+      if (match == nullptr)
+	{
+	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		       "failed to parse macro match in macro match repetition");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+
+      matches.push_back (std::move (match));
+
+      t = lexer.peek_token ();
+    }
+
+  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
+    {
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  // see if separator token exists
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Token> separator = nullptr;
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+    // repetition operators
+    case ASTERISK:
+    case PLUS:
+    case QUESTION_MARK:
+    // delimiters
+    case LEFT_PAREN:
+    case LEFT_CURLY:
+    case LEFT_SQUARE:
+    case RIGHT_PAREN:
+    case RIGHT_CURLY:
+    case RIGHT_SQUARE:
+      // separator does not exist, so still null and don't skip token
+      break;
+    default:
+      // separator does exist
+      separator = std::unique_ptr<AST::Token> (new AST::Token (std::move (t)));
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      break;
+    }
+
+  // parse repetition operator
+  t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  AST::MacroMatchRepetition::MacroRepOp op = AST::MacroMatchRepetition::NONE;
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+    case ASTERISK:
+      op = AST::MacroMatchRepetition::ANY;
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      break;
+    case PLUS:
+      op = AST::MacroMatchRepetition::ONE_OR_MORE;
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      break;
+    case QUESTION_MARK:
+      op = AST::MacroMatchRepetition::ZERO_OR_ONE;
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      break;
+    default:
+      add_error (
+	Error (t->get_locus (),
+	       "expected macro repetition operator (%<*%>, %<+%>, or %<?%>) in "
+	       "macro match - found %qs",
+	       t->get_token_description ()));
+
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  return std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatchRepetition> (
+    new AST::MacroMatchRepetition (std::move (matches), op,
+				   std::move (separator), t->get_locus ()));
+}
+
+/* Parses a visibility syntactical production (i.e. creating a non-default
+ * visibility) */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::Visibility
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_visibility ()
+{
+  // check for no visibility
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != PUB)
+    {
+      return AST::Visibility::create_private ();
+    }
+
+  lexer.skip_token ();
+
+  // create simple pub visibility if no parentheses
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != LEFT_PAREN)
+    {
+      return AST::Visibility::create_public ();
+      // or whatever
+    }
+
+  lexer.skip_token ();
+
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  auto path_loc = t->get_locus ();
+
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+    case CRATE:
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN);
+
+      return AST::Visibility::create_crate (path_loc);
+    case SELF:
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN);
+
+      return AST::Visibility::create_self (path_loc);
+    case SUPER:
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN);
+
+      return AST::Visibility::create_super (path_loc);
+      case IN: {
+	lexer.skip_token ();
+
+	// parse the "in" path as well
+	AST::SimplePath path = parse_simple_path ();
+	if (path.is_empty ())
+	  {
+	    Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+			 "missing path in pub(in path) visibility");
+	    add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	    // skip after somewhere?
+	    return AST::Visibility::create_error ();
+	  }
+
+	skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN);
+
+	return AST::Visibility::create_in_path (std::move (path));
+      }
+    default:
+      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (), "unexpected token %qs in visibility",
+			t->get_token_description ()));
+
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      return AST::Visibility::create_error ();
+    }
+}
+
+// Parses a module - either a bodied module or a module defined in another file.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::Module>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_module (AST::Visibility vis,
+					  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
+{
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+  skip_token (MOD);
+
+  const_TokenPtr module_name = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
+  if (module_name == nullptr)
+    {
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+  Identifier name = module_name->get_str ();
+
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+    case SEMICOLON:
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      // Construct an external module
+      return std::unique_ptr<AST::Module> (
+	new AST::Module (std::move (name), std::move (vis),
+			 std::move (outer_attrs), locus, lexer.get_filename (),
+			 inline_module_stack));
+      case LEFT_CURLY: {
+	lexer.skip_token ();
+
+	// parse inner attributes
+	AST::AttrVec inner_attrs = parse_inner_attributes ();
+
+	std::string module_path_name
+	  = extract_module_path (inner_attrs, outer_attrs, name);
+	InlineModuleStackScope scope (*this, std::move (module_path_name));
+
+	// parse items
+	std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Item>> items;
+	const_TokenPtr tok = lexer.peek_token ();
+	while (tok->get_id () != RIGHT_CURLY)
+	  {
+	    std::unique_ptr<AST::Item> item = parse_item (false);
+	    if (item == nullptr)
+	      {
+		Error error (tok->get_locus (),
+			     "failed to parse item in module");
+		add_error (std::move (error));
+
+		return nullptr;
+	      }
+
+	    items.push_back (std::move (item));
+
+	    tok = lexer.peek_token ();
+	  }
+
+	if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
+	  {
+	    // skip somewhere?
+	    return nullptr;
+	  }
+
+	return std::unique_ptr<AST::Module> (
+	  new AST::Module (std::move (name), locus, std::move (items),
+			   std::move (vis), std::move (inner_attrs),
+			   std::move (outer_attrs))); // module name?
+      }
+    default:
+      add_error (
+	Error (t->get_locus (),
+	       "unexpected token %qs in module declaration/definition item",
+	       t->get_token_description ()));
+
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+}
+
+// Parses an extern crate declaration (dependency on external crate)
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternCrate>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_extern_crate (AST::Visibility vis,
+						AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
+{
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+  if (!skip_token (EXTERN_TOK))
+    {
+      skip_after_semicolon ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  if (!skip_token (CRATE))
+    {
+      skip_after_semicolon ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  /* parse crate reference name - this has its own syntactical rule in reference
+   * but seems to not be used elsewhere, so i'm putting it here */
+  const_TokenPtr crate_name_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
+  std::string crate_name;
+
+  switch (crate_name_tok->get_id ())
+    {
+    case IDENTIFIER:
+      crate_name = crate_name_tok->get_str ();
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      break;
+    case SELF:
+      crate_name = "self";
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      break;
+    default:
+      add_error (
+	Error (crate_name_tok->get_locus (),
+	       "expecting crate name (identifier or %<self%>), found %qs",
+	       crate_name_tok->get_token_description ()));
+
+      skip_after_semicolon ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  // don't parse as clause if it doesn't exist
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == SEMICOLON)
+    {
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      return std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternCrate> (
+	new AST::ExternCrate (std::move (crate_name), std::move (vis),
+			      std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
+    }
+
+  /* parse as clause - this also has its own syntactical rule in reference and
+   * also seems to not be used elsewhere, so including here again. */
+  if (!skip_token (AS))
+    {
+      skip_after_semicolon ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  const_TokenPtr as_name_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
+  std::string as_name;
+
+  switch (as_name_tok->get_id ())
+    {
+    case IDENTIFIER:
+      as_name = as_name_tok->get_str ();
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      break;
+    case UNDERSCORE:
+      as_name = "_";
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      break;
+    default:
+      add_error (
+	Error (as_name_tok->get_locus (),
+	       "expecting as clause name (identifier or %<_%>), found %qs",
+	       as_name_tok->get_token_description ()));
+
+      skip_after_semicolon ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
+    {
+      skip_after_semicolon ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternCrate> (
+    new AST::ExternCrate (std::move (crate_name), std::move (vis),
+			  std::move (outer_attrs), locus, std::move (as_name)));
+}
+
+// Parses a use declaration.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::UseDeclaration>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_use_decl (AST::Visibility vis,
+					    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
+{
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+  if (!skip_token (USE))
+    {
+      skip_after_semicolon ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  // parse use tree, which is required
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTree> use_tree = parse_use_tree ();
+  if (use_tree == nullptr)
+    {
+      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		   "could not parse use tree in use declaration");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      skip_after_semicolon ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
+    {
+      skip_after_semicolon ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  return std::unique_ptr<AST::UseDeclaration> (
+    new AST::UseDeclaration (std::move (use_tree), std::move (vis),
+			     std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
+}
+
+// Parses a use tree (which can be recursive and is actually a base class).
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTree>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_use_tree ()
+{
+  /* potential syntax definitions in attempt to get algorithm:
+   *  Glob:
+   *      <- SimplePath :: *
+   *      <- :: *
+   *      <- *
+   *  Nested tree thing:
+   *      <- SimplePath :: { COMPLICATED_INNER_TREE_THING }
+   *      <- :: COMPLICATED_INNER_TREE_THING }
+   *      <- { COMPLICATED_INNER_TREE_THING }
+   *  Rebind thing:
+   *      <- SimplePath as IDENTIFIER
+   *      <- SimplePath as _
+   *      <- SimplePath
+   */
+
+  /* current plan of attack: try to parse SimplePath first - if fails, one of
+   * top two then try parse :: - if fails, one of top two. Next is deciding
+   * character for top two. */
+
+  /* Thus, parsing smaller parts of use tree may require feeding into function
+   * via parameters (or could handle all in this single function because other
+   * use tree types aren't recognised as separate in the spec) */
+
+  // TODO: I think this function is too complex, probably should split it
+
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+
+  // bool has_path = false;
+  AST::SimplePath path = parse_simple_path ();
+
+  if (path.is_empty ())
+    {
+      // has no path, so must be glob or nested tree UseTree type
+
+      bool is_global = false;
+
+      // check for global scope resolution operator
+      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION)
+	{
+	  lexer.skip_token ();
+	  is_global = true;
+	}
+
+      const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+      switch (t->get_id ())
+	{
+	case ASTERISK:
+	  // glob UseTree type
+	  lexer.skip_token ();
+
+	  if (is_global)
+	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTreeGlob> (
+	      new AST::UseTreeGlob (AST::UseTreeGlob::GLOBAL,
+				    AST::SimplePath::create_empty (), locus));
+	  else
+	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTreeGlob> (
+	      new AST::UseTreeGlob (AST::UseTreeGlob::NO_PATH,
+				    AST::SimplePath::create_empty (), locus));
+	  case LEFT_CURLY: {
+	    // nested tree UseTree type
+	    lexer.skip_token ();
+
+	    std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTree>> use_trees;
+
+	    const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+	    while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_CURLY)
+	      {
+		std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTree> use_tree = parse_use_tree ();
+		if (use_tree == nullptr)
+		  {
+		    break;
+		  }
+
+		use_trees.push_back (std::move (use_tree));
+
+		if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
+		  break;
+
+		lexer.skip_token ();
+		t = lexer.peek_token ();
+	      }
+
+	    // skip end curly delimiter
+	    if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
+	      {
+		// skip after somewhere?
+		return nullptr;
+	      }
+
+	    if (is_global)
+	      return std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTreeList> (
+		new AST::UseTreeList (AST::UseTreeList::GLOBAL,
+				      AST::SimplePath::create_empty (),
+				      std::move (use_trees), locus));
+	    else
+	      return std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTreeList> (
+		new AST::UseTreeList (AST::UseTreeList::NO_PATH,
+				      AST::SimplePath::create_empty (),
+				      std::move (use_trees), locus));
+	  }
+	case AS:
+	  // this is not allowed
+	  add_error (Error (
+	    t->get_locus (),
+	    "use declaration with rebind %<as%> requires a valid simple path - "
+	    "none found"));
+
+	  skip_after_semicolon ();
+	  return nullptr;
+	default:
+	  add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
+			    "unexpected token %qs in use tree with "
+			    "no valid simple path (i.e. list"
+			    " or glob use tree)",
+			    t->get_token_description ()));
+
+	  skip_after_semicolon ();
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+    }
+  else
+    {
+      /* Due to aforementioned implementation issues, the trailing :: token is
+       * consumed by the path, so it can not be used as a disambiguator.
+       * NOPE, not true anymore - TODO what are the consequences of this? */
+
+      const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+      switch (t->get_id ())
+	{
+	case ASTERISK:
+	  // glob UseTree type
+	  lexer.skip_token ();
+
+	  return std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTreeGlob> (
+	    new AST::UseTreeGlob (AST::UseTreeGlob::PATH_PREFIXED,
+				  std::move (path), locus));
+	  case LEFT_CURLY: {
+	    // nested tree UseTree type
+	    lexer.skip_token ();
+
+	    std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTree>> use_trees;
+
+	    // TODO: think of better control structure
+	    const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+	    while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_CURLY)
+	      {
+		std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTree> use_tree = parse_use_tree ();
+		if (use_tree == nullptr)
+		  {
+		    break;
+		  }
+
+		use_trees.push_back (std::move (use_tree));
+
+		if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
+		  break;
+
+		lexer.skip_token ();
+		t = lexer.peek_token ();
+	      }
+
+	    // skip end curly delimiter
+	    if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
+	      {
+		// skip after somewhere?
+		return nullptr;
+	      }
+
+	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTreeList> (
+	      new AST::UseTreeList (AST::UseTreeList::PATH_PREFIXED,
+				    std::move (path), std::move (use_trees),
+				    locus));
+	  }
+	  case AS: {
+	    // rebind UseTree type
+	    lexer.skip_token ();
+
+	    const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+	    switch (t->get_id ())
+	      {
+	      case IDENTIFIER:
+		// skip lexer token
+		lexer.skip_token ();
+
+		return std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTreeRebind> (
+		  new AST::UseTreeRebind (AST::UseTreeRebind::IDENTIFIER,
+					  std::move (path), locus,
+					  t->get_str ()));
+	      case UNDERSCORE:
+		// skip lexer token
+		lexer.skip_token ();
+
+		return std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTreeRebind> (
+		  new AST::UseTreeRebind (AST::UseTreeRebind::WILDCARD,
+					  std::move (path), locus, "_"));
+	      default:
+		add_error (Error (
+		  t->get_locus (),
+		  "unexpected token %qs in use tree with as clause - expected "
+		  "identifier or %<_%>",
+		  t->get_token_description ()));
+
+		skip_after_semicolon ();
+		return nullptr;
+	      }
+	  }
+	case SEMICOLON:
+	  // rebind UseTree type without rebinding - path only
+
+	  // don't skip semicolon - handled in parse_use_tree
+	  // lexer.skip_token();
+
+	  return std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTreeRebind> (
+	    new AST::UseTreeRebind (AST::UseTreeRebind::NONE, std::move (path),
+				    locus));
+	case COMMA:
+	case RIGHT_CURLY:
+	  // this may occur in recursive calls - assume it is ok and ignore it
+	  return std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTreeRebind> (
+	    new AST::UseTreeRebind (AST::UseTreeRebind::NONE, std::move (path),
+				    locus));
+	default:
+	  add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
+			    "unexpected token %qs in use tree with valid path",
+			    t->get_token_description ()));
+
+	  // skip_after_semicolon();
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+    }
+}
+
+// Parses a function (not a method).
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::Function>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_function (AST::Visibility vis,
+					    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
+{
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+  // Get qualifiers for function if they exist
+  AST::FunctionQualifiers qualifiers = parse_function_qualifiers ();
+
+  skip_token (FN_TOK);
+
+  // Save function name token
+  const_TokenPtr function_name_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
+  if (function_name_tok == nullptr)
+    {
+      skip_after_next_block ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+  Identifier function_name = function_name_tok->get_str ();
+
+  // parse generic params - if exist
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params
+    = parse_generic_params_in_angles ();
+
+  if (!skip_token (LEFT_PAREN))
+    {
+      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		   "function declaration missing opening parentheses before "
+		   "parameter list");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      skip_after_next_block ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  // parse function parameters (only if next token isn't right paren)
+  std::vector<AST::FunctionParam> function_params;
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != RIGHT_PAREN)
+    function_params
+      = parse_function_params ([] (TokenId id) { return id == RIGHT_PAREN; });
+
+  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
+    {
+      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		   "function declaration missing closing parentheses after "
+		   "parameter list");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      skip_after_next_block ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  // parse function return type - if exists
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> return_type = parse_function_return_type ();
+
+  // parse where clause - if exists
+  AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();
+
+  // parse block expression
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::BlockExpr> block_expr = parse_block_expr ();
+
+  return std::unique_ptr<AST::Function> (
+    new AST::Function (std::move (function_name), std::move (qualifiers),
+		       std::move (generic_params), std::move (function_params),
+		       std::move (return_type), std::move (where_clause),
+		       std::move (block_expr), std::move (vis),
+		       std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
+}
+
+// Parses function or method qualifiers (i.e. const, unsafe, and extern).
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::FunctionQualifiers
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_function_qualifiers ()
+{
+  AsyncConstStatus const_status = NONE;
+  bool has_unsafe = false;
+  bool has_extern = false;
+  std::string abi;
+
+  // Check in order of const, unsafe, then extern
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  Location locus = t->get_locus ();
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+    case CONST:
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      const_status = CONST_FN;
+      break;
+    case ASYNC:
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      const_status = ASYNC_FN;
+      break;
+    default:
+      // const status is still none
+      break;
+    }
+
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == UNSAFE)
+    {
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      has_unsafe = true;
+    }
+
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == EXTERN_TOK)
+    {
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      has_extern = true;
+
+      // detect optional abi name
+      const_TokenPtr next_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
+      if (next_tok->get_id () == STRING_LITERAL)
+	{
+	  lexer.skip_token ();
+	  abi = next_tok->get_str ();
+	}
+    }
+
+  return AST::FunctionQualifiers (locus, const_status, has_unsafe, has_extern,
+				  std::move (abi));
+}
+
+// Parses generic (lifetime or type) params inside angle brackets (optional).
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_generic_params_in_angles ()
+{
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != LEFT_ANGLE)
+    {
+      // seems to be no generic params, so exit with empty vector
+      return std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> ();
+    }
+  lexer.skip_token ();
+
+  // DEBUG:
+  rust_debug ("skipped left angle in generic param");
+
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params
+    = parse_generic_params (is_right_angle_tok);
+
+  // DEBUG:
+  rust_debug ("finished parsing actual generic params (i.e. inside angles)");
+
+  if (!skip_generics_right_angle ())
+    {
+      // DEBUG
+      rust_debug ("failed to skip generics right angle - returning empty "
+		  "generic params");
+
+      return std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> ();
+    }
+
+  return generic_params;
+}
+
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+template <typename EndTokenPred>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_generic_param (EndTokenPred is_end_token)
+{
+  auto token = lexer.peek_token ();
+  auto outer_attrs = parse_outer_attribute ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam> param;
+
+  switch (token->get_id ())
+    {
+      case LIFETIME: {
+	auto lifetime = parse_lifetime ();
+	if (lifetime.is_error ())
+	  {
+	    rust_error_at (
+	      token->get_locus (),
+	      "failed to parse lifetime in generic parameter list");
+	    return nullptr;
+	  }
+
+	std::vector<AST::Lifetime> lifetime_bounds;
+	if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COLON)
+	  {
+	    lexer.skip_token ();
+	    // parse required bounds
+	    lifetime_bounds
+	      = parse_lifetime_bounds ([is_end_token] (TokenId id) {
+		  return is_end_token (id) || id == COMMA;
+		});
+	  }
+
+	param = std::unique_ptr<AST::LifetimeParam> (new AST::LifetimeParam (
+	  std::move (lifetime), std::move (lifetime_bounds),
+	  std::move (outer_attrs), token->get_locus ()));
+	break;
+      }
+      case IDENTIFIER: {
+	auto type_ident = token->get_str ();
+	lexer.skip_token ();
+
+	std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>> type_param_bounds;
+	if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COLON)
+	  {
+	    lexer.skip_token ();
+
+	    // parse optional type param bounds
+	    type_param_bounds = parse_type_param_bounds ();
+	  }
+
+	std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = nullptr;
+	if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == EQUAL)
+	  {
+	    lexer.skip_token ();
+
+	    // parse required type
+	    type = parse_type ();
+	    if (!type)
+	      {
+		rust_error_at (
+		  lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		  "failed to parse type in type param in generic params");
+		return nullptr;
+	      }
+	  }
+
+	param = std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParam> (
+	  new AST::TypeParam (std::move (type_ident), token->get_locus (),
+			      std::move (type_param_bounds), std::move (type),
+			      std::move (outer_attrs)));
+	break;
+      }
+      case CONST: {
+	lexer.skip_token ();
+
+	auto name_token = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
+
+	if (!name_token || !expect_token (COLON))
+	  return nullptr;
+
+	auto type = parse_type ();
+	if (!type)
+	  return nullptr;
+
+	// optional default value
+	auto default_expr = AST::GenericArg::create_error ();
+	if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == EQUAL)
+	  {
+	    lexer.skip_token ();
+	    auto tok = lexer.peek_token ();
+	    default_expr = parse_generic_arg ();
+
+	    if (default_expr.is_error ())
+	      rust_error_at (tok->get_locus (),
+			     "invalid token for start of default value for "
+			     "const generic parameter: expected %<block%>, "
+			     "%<identifier%> or %<literal%>, got %qs",
+			     token_id_to_str (tok->get_id ()));
+
+	    // At this point, we *know* that we are parsing a const
+	    // expression
+	    if (default_expr.get_kind () == AST::GenericArg::Kind::Either)
+	      default_expr = default_expr.disambiguate_to_const ();
+	  }
+
+	param = std::unique_ptr<AST::ConstGenericParam> (
+	  new AST::ConstGenericParam (name_token->get_str (), std::move (type),
+				      default_expr, std::move (outer_attrs),
+				      token->get_locus ()));
+
+	break;
+      }
+    default:
+      // FIXME: Can we clean this last call with a method call?
+      rust_error_at (token->get_locus (),
+		     "unexpected token when parsing generic parameters: %qs",
+		     token->get_str ().c_str ());
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  return param;
+}
+
+/* Parse generic (lifetime or type) params NOT INSIDE ANGLE BRACKETS!!! Almost
+ * always parse_generic_params_in_angles is what is wanted. */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+template <typename EndTokenPred>
+std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_generic_params (EndTokenPred is_end_token)
+{
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params;
+
+  /* can't parse lifetime and type params separately due to lookahead issues
+   * thus, parse them all here */
+
+  /* HACK: used to retain attribute data if a lifetime param is tentatively
+   * parsed but it turns out to be type param */
+  AST::Attribute parsed_outer_attr = AST::Attribute::create_empty ();
+
+  // Did we parse a generic type param yet
+  auto type_seen = false;
+  // Did the user write a lifetime parameter after a type one
+  auto order_error = false;
+
+  // parse lifetime params
+  while (!is_end_token (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()))
+    {
+      auto param = parse_generic_param (is_end_token);
+      if (param)
+	{
+	  // TODO: Handle `Const` here as well if necessary
+	  if (param->get_kind () == AST::GenericParam::Kind::Type)
+	    type_seen = true;
+	  else if (param->get_kind () == AST::GenericParam::Kind::Lifetime
+		   && type_seen)
+	    order_error = true;
+
+	  generic_params.emplace_back (std::move (param));
+	  maybe_skip_token (COMMA);
+	}
+    }
+
+  // FIXME: Add reordering hint
+  if (order_error)
+    rust_error_at (generic_params.front ()->get_locus (),
+		   "invalid order for generic parameters: lifetimes should "
+		   "always come before types");
+
+  generic_params.shrink_to_fit ();
+  return generic_params;
+}
+
+/* Parses lifetime generic parameters (pointers). Will also consume any
+ * trailing comma. No extra checks for end token. */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::LifetimeParam>>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_lifetime_params ()
+{
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::LifetimeParam>> lifetime_params;
+
+  while (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != END_OF_FILE)
+    {
+      AST::LifetimeParam lifetime_param = parse_lifetime_param ();
+
+      if (lifetime_param.is_error ())
+	{
+	  // can't treat as error as only way to get out with trailing comma
+	  break;
+	}
+
+      lifetime_params.push_back (std::unique_ptr<AST::LifetimeParam> (
+	new AST::LifetimeParam (std::move (lifetime_param))));
+
+      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
+	break;
+
+      // skip commas, including trailing commas
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+    }
+
+  lifetime_params.shrink_to_fit ();
+
+  return lifetime_params;
+}
+
+/* Parses lifetime generic parameters (pointers). Will also consume any
+ * trailing comma. Has extra is_end_token predicate checking. */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+template <typename EndTokenPred>
+std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::LifetimeParam>>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_lifetime_params (EndTokenPred is_end_token)
+{
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::LifetimeParam>> lifetime_params;
+
+  // if end_token is not specified, it defaults to EOF, so should work fine
+  while (!is_end_token (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()))
+    {
+      AST::LifetimeParam lifetime_param = parse_lifetime_param ();
+
+      if (lifetime_param.is_error ())
+	{
+	  /* TODO: is it worth throwing away all lifetime params just because
+	   * one failed? */
+	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		       "failed to parse lifetime param in lifetime params");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  return {};
+	}
+
+      lifetime_params.push_back (std::unique_ptr<AST::LifetimeParam> (
+	new AST::LifetimeParam (std::move (lifetime_param))));
+
+      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
+	break;
+
+      // skip commas, including trailing commas
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+    }
+
+  lifetime_params.shrink_to_fit ();
+
+  return lifetime_params;
+}
+
+/* Parses lifetime generic parameters (objects). Will also consume any
+ * trailing comma. No extra checks for end token.
+ * TODO: is this best solution? implements most of the same algorithm. */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_lifetime_params_objs ()
+{
+  std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam> lifetime_params;
+
+  // bad control structure as end token cannot be guaranteed
+  while (true)
+    {
+      AST::LifetimeParam lifetime_param = parse_lifetime_param ();
+
+      if (lifetime_param.is_error ())
+	{
+	  // not an error as only way to exit if trailing comma
+	  break;
+	}
+
+      lifetime_params.push_back (std::move (lifetime_param));
+
+      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
+	break;
+
+      // skip commas, including trailing commas
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+    }
+
+  lifetime_params.shrink_to_fit ();
+
+  return lifetime_params;
+}
+
+/* Parses lifetime generic parameters (objects). Will also consume any
+ * trailing comma. Has extra is_end_token predicate checking.
+ * TODO: is this best solution? implements most of the same algorithm. */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+template <typename EndTokenPred>
+std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_lifetime_params_objs (
+  EndTokenPred is_end_token)
+{
+  std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam> lifetime_params;
+
+  while (!is_end_token (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()))
+    {
+      AST::LifetimeParam lifetime_param = parse_lifetime_param ();
+
+      if (lifetime_param.is_error ())
+	{
+	  /* TODO: is it worth throwing away all lifetime params just because
+	   * one failed? */
+	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		       "failed to parse lifetime param in lifetime params");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  return {};
+	}
+
+      lifetime_params.push_back (std::move (lifetime_param));
+
+      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
+	break;
+
+      // skip commas, including trailing commas
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+    }
+
+  lifetime_params.shrink_to_fit ();
+
+  return lifetime_params;
+}
+
+/* Parses a sequence of a certain grammar rule in object form (not pointer or
+ * smart pointer), delimited by commas and ending when 'is_end_token' is
+ * satisfied (templated). Will also consume any trailing comma.
+ * FIXME: this cannot be used due to member function pointer problems (i.e.
+ * parsing_function cannot be specified properly) */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+template <typename ParseFunction, typename EndTokenPred>
+auto
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_non_ptr_sequence (
+  ParseFunction parsing_function, EndTokenPred is_end_token,
+  std::string error_msg) -> std::vector<decltype (parsing_function ())>
+{
+  std::vector<decltype (parsing_function ())> params;
+
+  while (!is_end_token (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()))
+    {
+      auto param = parsing_function ();
+
+      if (param.is_error ())
+	{
+	  // TODO: is it worth throwing away all params just because one
+	  // failed?
+	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		       std::move (error_msg));
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  return {};
+	}
+
+      params.push_back (std::move (param));
+
+      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
+	break;
+
+      // skip commas, including trailing commas
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+    }
+
+  params.shrink_to_fit ();
+
+  return params;
+}
+
+/* Parses a single lifetime generic parameter (not including comma). */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::LifetimeParam
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_lifetime_param ()
+{
+  // parse outer attribute, which is optional and may not exist
+  AST::Attribute outer_attr = parse_outer_attribute ();
+
+  // save lifetime token - required
+  const_TokenPtr lifetime_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
+  if (lifetime_tok->get_id () != LIFETIME)
+    {
+      // if lifetime is missing, must not be a lifetime param, so return null
+      return AST::LifetimeParam::create_error ();
+    }
+  lexer.skip_token ();
+  /* TODO: does this always create a named lifetime? or can a different type
+   * be made? */
+  AST::Lifetime lifetime (AST::Lifetime::NAMED, lifetime_tok->get_str (),
+			  lifetime_tok->get_locus ());
+
+  // parse lifetime bounds, if it exists
+  std::vector<AST::Lifetime> lifetime_bounds;
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COLON)
+    {
+      // parse lifetime bounds
+      lifetime_bounds = parse_lifetime_bounds ();
+      // TODO: have end token passed in?
+    }
+
+  return AST::LifetimeParam (std::move (lifetime), std::move (lifetime_bounds),
+			     std::move (outer_attr),
+			     lifetime_tok->get_locus ());
+}
+
+// Parses type generic parameters. Will also consume any trailing comma.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParam>>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type_params ()
+{
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParam>> type_params;
+
+  // infinite loop with break on failure as no info on ending token
+  while (true)
+    {
+      std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParam> type_param = parse_type_param ();
+
+      if (type_param == nullptr)
+	{
+	  // break if fails to parse
+	  break;
+	}
+
+      type_params.push_back (std::move (type_param));
+
+      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
+	break;
+
+      // skip commas, including trailing commas
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+    }
+
+  type_params.shrink_to_fit ();
+  return type_params;
+}
+
+// Parses type generic parameters. Will also consume any trailing comma.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+template <typename EndTokenPred>
+std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParam>>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type_params (EndTokenPred is_end_token)
+{
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParam>> type_params;
+
+  while (!is_end_token (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()))
+    {
+      std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParam> type_param = parse_type_param ();
+
+      if (type_param == nullptr)
+	{
+	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		       "failed to parse type param in type params");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  return {};
+	}
+
+      type_params.push_back (std::move (type_param));
+
+      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
+	break;
+
+      // skip commas, including trailing commas
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+    }
+
+  type_params.shrink_to_fit ();
+  return type_params;
+  /* TODO: this shares most code with parse_lifetime_params - good place to
+   * use template (i.e. parse_non_ptr_sequence if doable) */
+}
+
+/* Parses a single type (generic) parameter, not including commas. May change
+ * to return value. */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParam>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type_param ()
+{
+  // parse outer attribute, which is optional and may not exist
+  AST::Attribute outer_attr = parse_outer_attribute ();
+
+  const_TokenPtr identifier_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
+  if (identifier_tok->get_id () != IDENTIFIER)
+    {
+      // return null as type param can't exist without this required
+      // identifier
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+  // TODO: create identifier from identifier token
+  Identifier ident = identifier_tok->get_str ();
+  lexer.skip_token ();
+
+  // parse type param bounds (if they exist)
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>> type_param_bounds;
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COLON)
+    {
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      // parse type param bounds, which may or may not exist
+      type_param_bounds = parse_type_param_bounds ();
+    }
+
+  // parse type (if it exists)
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = nullptr;
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == EQUAL)
+    {
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      // parse type (now required)
+      type = parse_type ();
+      if (type == nullptr)
+	{
+	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		       "failed to parse type in type param");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+    }
+
+  return std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParam> (
+    new AST::TypeParam (std::move (ident), identifier_tok->get_locus (),
+			std::move (type_param_bounds), std::move (type),
+			std::move (outer_attr)));
+}
+
+/* Parses regular (i.e. non-generic) parameters in functions or methods. Also
+ * has end token handling. */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+template <typename EndTokenPred>
+std::vector<AST::FunctionParam>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_function_params (EndTokenPred is_end_token)
+{
+  std::vector<AST::FunctionParam> params;
+
+  if (is_end_token (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()))
+    return params;
+
+  AST::FunctionParam initial_param = parse_function_param ();
+
+  // Return empty parameter list if no parameter there
+  if (initial_param.is_error ())
+    {
+      // TODO: is this an error?
+      return params;
+    }
+
+  params.push_back (std::move (initial_param));
+
+  // maybe think of a better control structure here - do-while with an initial
+  // error state? basically, loop through parameter list until can't find any
+  // more params
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  while (t->get_id () == COMMA)
+    {
+      // skip comma if applies
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      // TODO: strictly speaking, shouldn't there be no trailing comma?
+      if (is_end_token (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()))
+	break;
+
+      // now, as right paren would break, function param is required
+      AST::FunctionParam param = parse_function_param ();
+      if (param.is_error ())
+	{
+	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		       "failed to parse function param (in function params)");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  // skip somewhere?
+	  return std::vector<AST::FunctionParam> ();
+	}
+
+      params.push_back (std::move (param));
+
+      t = lexer.peek_token ();
+    }
+
+  params.shrink_to_fit ();
+  return params;
+}
+
+/* Parses a single regular (i.e. non-generic) parameter in a function or
+ * method, i.e. the "name: type" bit. Also handles it not existing. */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::FunctionParam
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_function_param ()
+{
+  // parse outer attributes if they exist
+  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();
+
+  // TODO: should saved location be at start of outer attributes or pattern?
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> param_pattern = parse_pattern ();
+
+  // create error function param if it doesn't exist
+  if (param_pattern == nullptr)
+    {
+      // skip after something
+      return AST::FunctionParam::create_error ();
+    }
+
+  if (!skip_token (COLON))
+    {
+      // skip after something
+      return AST::FunctionParam::create_error ();
+    }
+
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> param_type = parse_type ();
+  if (param_type == nullptr)
+    {
+      // skip?
+      return AST::FunctionParam::create_error ();
+    }
+
+  return AST::FunctionParam (std::move (param_pattern), std::move (param_type),
+			     std::move (outer_attrs), locus);
+}
+
+/* Parses a function or method return type syntactical construction. Also
+ * handles a function return type not existing. */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::Type>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_function_return_type ()
+{
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != RETURN_TYPE)
+    return nullptr;
+
+  // skip return type, as it now obviously exists
+  lexer.skip_token ();
+
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = parse_type ();
+
+  return type;
+}
+
+/* Parses a "where clause" (in a function, struct, method, etc.). Also handles
+ * a where clause not existing, in which it will return
+ * WhereClause::create_empty(), which can be checked via
+ * WhereClause::is_empty(). */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::WhereClause
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_where_clause ()
+{
+  const_TokenPtr where_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
+  if (where_tok->get_id () != WHERE)
+    {
+      // where clause doesn't exist, so create empty one
+      return AST::WhereClause::create_empty ();
+    }
+
+  lexer.skip_token ();
+
+  /* parse where clause items - this is not a separate rule in the reference
+   * so won't be here */
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::WhereClauseItem>> where_clause_items;
+
+  /* HACK: where clauses end with a right curly or semicolon or equals in all
+   * uses currently */
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  while (t->get_id () != LEFT_CURLY && t->get_id () != SEMICOLON
+	 && t->get_id () != EQUAL)
+    {
+      std::unique_ptr<AST::WhereClauseItem> where_clause_item
+	= parse_where_clause_item ();
+
+      if (where_clause_item == nullptr)
+	{
+	  Error error (t->get_locus (), "failed to parse where clause item");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  return AST::WhereClause::create_empty ();
+	}
+
+      where_clause_items.push_back (std::move (where_clause_item));
+
+      // also skip comma if it exists
+      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
+	break;
+
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      t = lexer.peek_token ();
+    }
+
+  where_clause_items.shrink_to_fit ();
+  return AST::WhereClause (std::move (where_clause_items));
+}
+
+/* Parses a where clause item (lifetime or type bound). Does not parse any
+ * commas. */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::WhereClauseItem>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_where_clause_item ()
+{
+  // shitty cheat way of determining lifetime or type bound - test for
+  // lifetime
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+
+  if (t->get_id () == LIFETIME)
+    return parse_lifetime_where_clause_item ();
+  else
+    return parse_type_bound_where_clause_item ();
+}
+
+// Parses a lifetime where clause item.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::LifetimeWhereClauseItem>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_lifetime_where_clause_item ()
+{
+  AST::Lifetime lifetime = parse_lifetime ();
+  if (lifetime.is_error ())
+    {
+      // TODO: error here?
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  if (!skip_token (COLON))
+    {
+      // TODO: skip after somewhere
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  std::vector<AST::Lifetime> lifetime_bounds = parse_lifetime_bounds ();
+  // TODO: have end token passed in?
+
+  Location locus = lifetime.get_locus ();
+
+  return std::unique_ptr<AST::LifetimeWhereClauseItem> (
+    new AST::LifetimeWhereClauseItem (std::move (lifetime),
+				      std::move (lifetime_bounds), locus));
+}
+
+// Parses a type bound where clause item.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeBoundWhereClauseItem>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type_bound_where_clause_item ()
+{
+  // parse for lifetimes, if it exists
+  std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam> for_lifetimes;
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == FOR)
+    for_lifetimes = parse_for_lifetimes ();
+
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = parse_type ();
+  if (type == nullptr)
+    {
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  if (!skip_token (COLON))
+    {
+      // TODO: skip after somewhere
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  // parse type param bounds if they exist
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>> type_param_bounds
+    = parse_type_param_bounds ();
+
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+
+  return std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeBoundWhereClauseItem> (
+    new AST::TypeBoundWhereClauseItem (std::move (for_lifetimes),
+				       std::move (type),
+				       std::move (type_param_bounds), locus));
+}
+
+// Parses a for lifetimes clause, including the for keyword and angle
+// brackets.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_for_lifetimes ()
+{
+  std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam> params;
+
+  if (!skip_token (FOR))
+    {
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      return params;
+    }
+
+  if (!skip_token (LEFT_ANGLE))
+    {
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      return params;
+    }
+
+  /* cannot specify end token due to parsing problems with '>' tokens being
+   * nested */
+  params = parse_lifetime_params_objs (is_right_angle_tok);
+
+  if (!skip_generics_right_angle ())
+    {
+      // DEBUG
+      rust_debug ("failed to skip generics right angle after (supposedly) "
+		  "finished parsing where clause items");
+      // ok, well this gets called.
+
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      return params;
+    }
+
+  return params;
+}
+
+// Parses type parameter bounds in where clause or generic arguments.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type_param_bounds ()
+{
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>> type_param_bounds;
+
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound> initial_bound
+    = parse_type_param_bound ();
+
+  // quick exit if null
+  if (initial_bound == nullptr)
+    {
+      /* error? type param bounds must have at least one term, but are bounds
+       * optional? */
+      return type_param_bounds;
+    }
+  type_param_bounds.push_back (std::move (initial_bound));
+
+  while (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == PLUS)
+    {
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound> bound = parse_type_param_bound ();
+      if (bound == nullptr)
+	{
+	  /* not an error: bound is allowed to be null as trailing plus is
+	   * allowed */
+	  return type_param_bounds;
+	}
+
+      type_param_bounds.push_back (std::move (bound));
+    }
+
+  type_param_bounds.shrink_to_fit ();
+  return type_param_bounds;
+}
+
+/* Parses type parameter bounds in where clause or generic arguments, with end
+ * token handling. */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+template <typename EndTokenPred>
+std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type_param_bounds (EndTokenPred is_end_token)
+{
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>> type_param_bounds;
+
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound> initial_bound
+    = parse_type_param_bound ();
+
+  // quick exit if null
+  if (initial_bound == nullptr)
+    {
+      /* error? type param bounds must have at least one term, but are bounds
+       * optional? */
+      return type_param_bounds;
+    }
+  type_param_bounds.push_back (std::move (initial_bound));
+
+  while (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == PLUS)
+    {
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      // break if end token character
+      if (is_end_token (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()))
+	break;
+
+      std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound> bound = parse_type_param_bound ();
+      if (bound == nullptr)
+	{
+	  // TODO how wise is it to ditch all bounds if only one failed?
+	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		       "failed to parse type param bound in type param bounds");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  return {};
+	}
+
+      type_param_bounds.push_back (std::move (bound));
+    }
+
+  type_param_bounds.shrink_to_fit ();
+  return type_param_bounds;
+}
+
+/* Parses a single type parameter bound in a where clause or generic argument.
+ * Does not parse the '+' between arguments. */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type_param_bound ()
+{
+  // shitty cheat way of determining lifetime or trait bound - test for
+  // lifetime
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+    case LIFETIME:
+      return std::unique_ptr<AST::Lifetime> (
+	new AST::Lifetime (parse_lifetime ()));
+    case LEFT_PAREN:
+    case QUESTION_MARK:
+    case FOR:
+    case IDENTIFIER:
+    case SUPER:
+    case SELF:
+    case SELF_ALIAS:
+    case CRATE:
+    case DOLLAR_SIGN:
+      return parse_trait_bound ();
+    default:
+      // don't error - assume this is fine TODO
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+}
+
+// Parses a trait bound type param bound.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitBound>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_trait_bound ()
+{
+  bool has_parens = false;
+  bool has_question_mark = false;
+
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+
+  // handle trait bound being in parentheses
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == LEFT_PAREN)
+    {
+      has_parens = true;
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+    }
+
+  // handle having question mark (optional)
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == QUESTION_MARK)
+    {
+      has_question_mark = true;
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+    }
+
+  /* parse for lifetimes, if it exists (although empty for lifetimes is ok to
+   * handle this) */
+  std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam> for_lifetimes;
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == FOR)
+    for_lifetimes = parse_for_lifetimes ();
+
+  // handle TypePath
+  AST::TypePath type_path = parse_type_path ();
+
+  // handle closing parentheses
+  if (has_parens)
+    {
+      if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
+	{
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+    }
+
+  return std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitBound> (
+    new AST::TraitBound (std::move (type_path), locus, has_parens,
+			 has_question_mark, std::move (for_lifetimes)));
+}
+
+// Parses lifetime bounds.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::vector<AST::Lifetime>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_lifetime_bounds ()
+{
+  std::vector<AST::Lifetime> lifetime_bounds;
+
+  while (true)
+    {
+      AST::Lifetime lifetime = parse_lifetime ();
+
+      // quick exit for parsing failure
+      if (lifetime.is_error ())
+	break;
+
+      lifetime_bounds.push_back (std::move (lifetime));
+
+      /* plus is maybe not allowed at end - spec defines it weirdly, so
+       * assuming allowed at end */
+      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != PLUS)
+	break;
+
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+    }
+
+  lifetime_bounds.shrink_to_fit ();
+  return lifetime_bounds;
+}
+
+// Parses lifetime bounds, with added check for ending token.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+template <typename EndTokenPred>
+std::vector<AST::Lifetime>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_lifetime_bounds (EndTokenPred is_end_token)
+{
+  std::vector<AST::Lifetime> lifetime_bounds;
+
+  while (!is_end_token (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()))
+    {
+      AST::Lifetime lifetime = parse_lifetime ();
+
+      if (lifetime.is_error ())
+	{
+	  /* TODO: is it worth throwing away all lifetime bound info just
+	   * because one failed? */
+	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		       "failed to parse lifetime in lifetime bounds");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  return {};
+	}
+
+      lifetime_bounds.push_back (std::move (lifetime));
+
+      /* plus is maybe not allowed at end - spec defines it weirdly, so
+       * assuming allowed at end */
+      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != PLUS)
+	break;
+
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+    }
+
+  lifetime_bounds.shrink_to_fit ();
+  return lifetime_bounds;
+}
+
+/* Parses a lifetime token (named, 'static, or '_). Also handles lifetime not
+ * existing. */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::Lifetime
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_lifetime ()
+{
+  const_TokenPtr lifetime_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
+  Location locus = lifetime_tok->get_locus ();
+  // create error lifetime if doesn't exist
+  if (lifetime_tok->get_id () != LIFETIME)
+    {
+      return AST::Lifetime::error ();
+    }
+  lexer.skip_token ();
+
+  std::string lifetime_ident = lifetime_tok->get_str ();
+
+  if (lifetime_ident == "'static")
+    {
+      return AST::Lifetime (AST::Lifetime::STATIC, "", locus);
+    }
+  else if (lifetime_ident == "'_")
+    {
+      return AST::Lifetime (AST::Lifetime::WILDCARD, "", locus);
+    }
+  else
+    {
+      return AST::Lifetime (AST::Lifetime::NAMED, std::move (lifetime_ident),
+			    locus);
+    }
+}
+
+// Parses a "type alias" (typedef) item.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeAlias>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type_alias (AST::Visibility vis,
+					      AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
+{
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+  skip_token (TYPE);
+
+  // TODO: use this token for identifier when finished that
+  const_TokenPtr alias_name_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
+  if (alias_name_tok == nullptr)
+    {
+      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		   "could not parse identifier in type alias");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      skip_after_semicolon ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+  Identifier alias_name = alias_name_tok->get_str ();
+
+  // parse generic params, which may not exist
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params
+    = parse_generic_params_in_angles ();
+
+  // parse where clause, which may not exist
+  AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();
+
+  if (!skip_token (EQUAL))
+    {
+      skip_after_semicolon ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type_to_alias = parse_type ();
+
+  if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
+    {
+      // should be skipping past this, not the next line
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  return std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeAlias> (
+    new AST::TypeAlias (std::move (alias_name), std::move (generic_params),
+			std::move (where_clause), std::move (type_to_alias),
+			std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
+}
+
+// Parse a struct item AST node.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::Struct>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_struct (AST::Visibility vis,
+					  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
+{
+  /* TODO: determine best way to parse the proper struct vs tuple struct -
+   * share most of initial constructs so lookahead might be impossible, and if
+   * not probably too expensive. Best way is probably unified parsing for the
+   * initial parts and then pass them in as params to more derived functions.
+   * Alternatively, just parse everything in this one function - do this if
+   * function not too long. */
+
+  /* Proper struct <- 'struct' IDENTIFIER generic_params? where_clause? ( '{'
+   * struct_fields? '}' | ';' ) */
+  /* Tuple struct <- 'struct' IDENTIFIER generic_params? '(' tuple_fields? ')'
+   * where_clause? ';' */
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+  skip_token (STRUCT_TOK);
+
+  // parse struct name
+  const_TokenPtr name_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
+  if (name_tok == nullptr)
+    {
+      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		   "could not parse struct or tuple struct identifier");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+  Identifier struct_name = name_tok->get_str ();
+
+  // parse generic params, which may or may not exist
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params
+    = parse_generic_params_in_angles ();
+
+  // branch on next token - determines whether proper struct or tuple struct
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == LEFT_PAREN)
+    {
+      // tuple struct
+
+      // skip left parenthesis
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      // parse tuple fields
+      std::vector<AST::TupleField> tuple_fields;
+      // Might be empty tuple for unit tuple struct.
+      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == RIGHT_PAREN)
+	tuple_fields = std::vector<AST::TupleField> ();
+      else
+	tuple_fields = parse_tuple_fields ();
+
+      // tuple parameters must have closing parenthesis
+      if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
+	{
+	  skip_after_semicolon ();
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+
+      // parse where clause, which is optional
+      AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();
+
+      if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
+	{
+	  // can't skip after semicolon because it's meant to be here
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+
+      return std::unique_ptr<AST::TupleStruct> (
+	new AST::TupleStruct (std::move (tuple_fields), std::move (struct_name),
+			      std::move (generic_params),
+			      std::move (where_clause), std::move (vis),
+			      std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
+    }
+
+  // assume it is a proper struct being parsed and continue outside of switch
+  // - label only here to suppress warning
+
+  // parse where clause, which is optional
+  AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();
+
+  // branch on next token - determines whether struct is a unit struct
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+      case LEFT_CURLY: {
+	// struct with body
+
+	// skip curly bracket
+	lexer.skip_token ();
+
+	// parse struct fields, if any
+	std::vector<AST::StructField> struct_fields
+	  = parse_struct_fields ([] (TokenId id) { return id == RIGHT_CURLY; });
+
+	if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
+	  {
+	    // skip somewhere?
+	    return nullptr;
+	  }
+
+	return std::unique_ptr<AST::StructStruct> (new AST::StructStruct (
+	  std::move (struct_fields), std::move (struct_name),
+	  std::move (generic_params), std::move (where_clause), false,
+	  std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
+      }
+    case SEMICOLON:
+      // unit struct declaration
+
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      return std::unique_ptr<AST::StructStruct> (
+	new AST::StructStruct (std::move (struct_name),
+			       std::move (generic_params),
+			       std::move (where_clause), std::move (vis),
+			       std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
+    default:
+      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
+			"unexpected token %qs in struct declaration",
+			t->get_token_description ()));
+
+      // skip somewhere?
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+}
+
+// Parses struct fields in struct declarations.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::vector<AST::StructField>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_struct_fields ()
+{
+  std::vector<AST::StructField> fields;
+
+  AST::StructField initial_field = parse_struct_field ();
+
+  // Return empty field list if no field there
+  if (initial_field.is_error ())
+    return fields;
+
+  fields.push_back (std::move (initial_field));
+
+  while (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COMMA)
+    {
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      AST::StructField field = parse_struct_field ();
+
+      if (field.is_error ())
+	{
+	  // would occur with trailing comma, so allowed
+	  break;
+	}
+
+      fields.push_back (std::move (field));
+    }
+
+  fields.shrink_to_fit ();
+  return fields;
+  // TODO: template if possible (parse_non_ptr_seq)
+}
+
+// Parses struct fields in struct declarations.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+template <typename EndTokenPred>
+std::vector<AST::StructField>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_struct_fields (EndTokenPred is_end_tok)
+{
+  std::vector<AST::StructField> fields;
+
+  AST::StructField initial_field = parse_struct_field ();
+
+  // Return empty field list if no field there
+  if (initial_field.is_error ())
+    return fields;
+
+  fields.push_back (std::move (initial_field));
+
+  while (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COMMA)
+    {
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      if (is_end_tok (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()))
+	break;
+
+      AST::StructField field = parse_struct_field ();
+      if (field.is_error ())
+	{
+	  /* TODO: should every field be ditched just because one couldn't be
+	   * parsed? */
+	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		       "failed to parse struct field in struct fields");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  return {};
+	}
+
+      fields.push_back (std::move (field));
+    }
+
+  fields.shrink_to_fit ();
+  return fields;
+  // TODO: template if possible (parse_non_ptr_seq)
+}
+
+// Parses a single struct field (in a struct definition). Does not parse
+// commas.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::StructField
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_struct_field ()
+{
+  // parse outer attributes, if they exist
+  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();
+
+  // parse visibility, if it exists
+  AST::Visibility vis = parse_visibility ();
+
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+
+  // parse field name
+  const_TokenPtr field_name_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
+  if (field_name_tok->get_id () != IDENTIFIER)
+    {
+      // if not identifier, assumes there is no struct field and exits - not
+      // necessarily error
+      return AST::StructField::create_error ();
+    }
+  Identifier field_name = field_name_tok->get_str ();
+  lexer.skip_token ();
+
+  if (!skip_token (COLON))
+    {
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      return AST::StructField::create_error ();
+    }
+
+  // parse field type - this is required
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> field_type = parse_type ();
+  if (field_type == nullptr)
+    {
+      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		   "could not parse type in struct field definition");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      // skip after somewhere
+      return AST::StructField::create_error ();
+    }
+
+  return AST::StructField (std::move (field_name), std::move (field_type),
+			   std::move (vis), locus, std::move (outer_attrs));
+}
+
+// Parses tuple fields in tuple/tuple struct declarations.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::vector<AST::TupleField>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_tuple_fields ()
+{
+  std::vector<AST::TupleField> fields;
+
+  AST::TupleField initial_field = parse_tuple_field ();
+
+  // Return empty field list if no field there
+  if (initial_field.is_error ())
+    {
+      return fields;
+    }
+
+  fields.push_back (std::move (initial_field));
+
+  // maybe think of a better control structure here - do-while with an initial
+  // error state? basically, loop through field list until can't find any more
+  // params HACK: all current syntax uses of tuple fields have them ending
+  // with a right paren token
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  while (t->get_id () == COMMA)
+    {
+      // skip comma if applies - e.g. trailing comma
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      // break out due to right paren if it exists
+      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == RIGHT_PAREN)
+	{
+	  break;
+	}
+
+      AST::TupleField field = parse_tuple_field ();
+      if (field.is_error ())
+	{
+	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		       "failed to parse tuple field in tuple fields");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  return std::vector<AST::TupleField> ();
+	}
+
+      fields.push_back (std::move (field));
+
+      t = lexer.peek_token ();
+    }
+
+  fields.shrink_to_fit ();
+  return fields;
+
+  // TODO: this shares basically all code with function params and struct
+  // fields
+  // - templates?
+}
+
+/* Parses a single tuple struct field in a tuple struct definition. Does not
+ * parse commas. */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::TupleField
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_tuple_field ()
+{
+  // parse outer attributes if they exist
+  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();
+
+  // parse visibility if it exists
+  AST::Visibility vis = parse_visibility ();
+
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+
+  // parse type, which is required
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> field_type = parse_type ();
+  if (field_type == nullptr)
+    {
+      // error if null
+      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		   "could not parse type in tuple struct field");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      // skip after something
+      return AST::TupleField::create_error ();
+    }
+
+  return AST::TupleField (std::move (field_type), std::move (vis), locus,
+			  std::move (outer_attrs));
+}
+
+// Parses a Rust "enum" tagged union item definition.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::Enum>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_enum (AST::Visibility vis,
+					AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
+{
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+  skip_token (ENUM_TOK);
+
+  // parse enum name
+  const_TokenPtr enum_name_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
+  if (enum_name_tok == nullptr)
+    return nullptr;
+
+  Identifier enum_name = enum_name_tok->get_str ();
+
+  // parse generic params (of enum container, not enum variants) if they exist
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params
+    = parse_generic_params_in_angles ();
+
+  // parse where clause if it exists
+  AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();
+
+  if (!skip_token (LEFT_CURLY))
+    {
+      skip_after_end_block ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  // parse actual enum variant definitions
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem>> enum_items
+    = parse_enum_items ([] (TokenId id) { return id == RIGHT_CURLY; });
+
+  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
+    {
+      skip_after_end_block ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  return std::unique_ptr<AST::Enum> (
+    new AST::Enum (std::move (enum_name), std::move (vis),
+		   std::move (generic_params), std::move (where_clause),
+		   std::move (enum_items), std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
+}
+
+// Parses the enum variants inside an enum definiton.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem>>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_enum_items ()
+{
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem>> items;
+
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem> initial_item = parse_enum_item ();
+
+  // Return empty item list if no field there
+  if (initial_item == nullptr)
+    return items;
+
+  items.push_back (std::move (initial_item));
+
+  while (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COMMA)
+    {
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem> item = parse_enum_item ();
+      if (item == nullptr)
+	{
+	  // this would occur with a trailing comma, which is allowed
+	  break;
+	}
+
+      items.push_back (std::move (item));
+    }
+
+  items.shrink_to_fit ();
+  return items;
+
+  /* TODO: use template if doable (parse_non_ptr_sequence) */
+}
+
+// Parses the enum variants inside an enum definiton.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+template <typename EndTokenPred>
+std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem>>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_enum_items (EndTokenPred is_end_tok)
+{
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem>> items;
+
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem> initial_item = parse_enum_item ();
+
+  // Return empty item list if no field there
+  if (initial_item == nullptr)
+    return items;
+
+  items.push_back (std::move (initial_item));
+
+  while (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COMMA)
+    {
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      if (is_end_tok (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()))
+	break;
+
+      std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem> item = parse_enum_item ();
+      if (item == nullptr)
+	{
+	  /* TODO should this ignore all successfully parsed enum items just
+	   * because one failed? */
+	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		       "failed to parse enum item in enum items");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  return {};
+	}
+
+      items.push_back (std::move (item));
+    }
+
+  items.shrink_to_fit ();
+  return items;
+
+  /* TODO: use template if doable (parse_non_ptr_sequence) */
+}
+
+/* Parses a single enum variant item in an enum definition. Does not parse
+ * commas. */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_enum_item ()
+{
+  // parse outer attributes if they exist
+  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();
+
+  // parse visibility, which may or may not exist
+  AST::Visibility vis = parse_visibility ();
+
+  // parse name for enum item, which is required
+  const_TokenPtr item_name_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
+  if (item_name_tok->get_id () != IDENTIFIER)
+    {
+      // this may not be an error but it means there is no enum item here
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+  lexer.skip_token ();
+  Identifier item_name = item_name_tok->get_str ();
+
+  // branch based on next token
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+      case LEFT_PAREN: {
+	// tuple enum item
+	lexer.skip_token ();
+
+	std::vector<AST::TupleField> tuple_fields;
+	// Might be empty tuple for unit tuple enum variant.
+	if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == RIGHT_PAREN)
+	  tuple_fields = std::vector<AST::TupleField> ();
+	else
+	  tuple_fields = parse_tuple_fields ();
+
+	if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
+	  {
+	    // skip after somewhere
+	    return nullptr;
+	  }
+
+	return std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItemTuple> (new AST::EnumItemTuple (
+	  std::move (item_name), std::move (vis), std::move (tuple_fields),
+	  std::move (outer_attrs), item_name_tok->get_locus ()));
+      }
+      case LEFT_CURLY: {
+	// struct enum item
+	lexer.skip_token ();
+
+	std::vector<AST::StructField> struct_fields
+	  = parse_struct_fields ([] (TokenId id) { return id == RIGHT_CURLY; });
+
+	if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
+	  {
+	    // skip after somewhere
+	    return nullptr;
+	  }
+
+	return std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItemStruct> (new AST::EnumItemStruct (
+	  std::move (item_name), std::move (vis), std::move (struct_fields),
+	  std::move (outer_attrs), item_name_tok->get_locus ()));
+      }
+      case EQUAL: {
+	// discriminant enum item
+	lexer.skip_token ();
+
+	std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> discriminant_expr = parse_expr ();
+
+	return std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItemDiscriminant> (
+	  new AST::EnumItemDiscriminant (std::move (item_name), std::move (vis),
+					 std::move (discriminant_expr),
+					 std::move (outer_attrs),
+					 item_name_tok->get_locus ()));
+      }
+    default:
+      // regular enum with just an identifier
+      return std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem> (
+	new AST::EnumItem (std::move (item_name), std::move (vis),
+			   std::move (outer_attrs),
+			   item_name_tok->get_locus ()));
+    }
+}
+
+// Parses a C-style (and C-compat) untagged union declaration.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::Union>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_union (AST::Visibility vis,
+					 AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
+{
+  /* hack - "weak keyword" by finding identifier called "union" (lookahead in
+   * item switch) */
+  const_TokenPtr union_keyword = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
+  rust_assert (union_keyword->get_str () == "union");
+  Location locus = union_keyword->get_locus ();
+
+  // parse actual union name
+  const_TokenPtr union_name_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
+  if (union_name_tok == nullptr)
+    {
+      skip_after_next_block ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+  Identifier union_name = union_name_tok->get_str ();
+
+  // parse optional generic parameters
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params
+    = parse_generic_params_in_angles ();
+
+  // parse optional where clause
+  AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();
+
+  if (!skip_token (LEFT_CURLY))
+    {
+      skip_after_end_block ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  /* parse union inner items as "struct fields" because hey, syntax reuse.
+   * Spec said so. */
+  std::vector<AST::StructField> union_fields
+    = parse_struct_fields ([] (TokenId id) { return id == RIGHT_CURLY; });
+
+  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
+    {
+      // skip after somewhere
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  return std::unique_ptr<AST::Union> (
+    new AST::Union (std::move (union_name), std::move (vis),
+		    std::move (generic_params), std::move (where_clause),
+		    std::move (union_fields), std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
+}
+
+/* Parses a "constant item" (compile-time constant to maybe "inline"
+ * throughout the program - like constexpr). */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::ConstantItem>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_const_item (AST::Visibility vis,
+					      AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
+{
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+  skip_token (CONST);
+
+  /* get constant identifier - this is either a proper identifier or the _
+   * wildcard */
+  const_TokenPtr ident_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
+  // make default identifier the underscore wildcard one
+  std::string ident ("_");
+  switch (ident_tok->get_id ())
+    {
+    case IDENTIFIER:
+      ident = ident_tok->get_str ();
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      break;
+    case UNDERSCORE:
+      // do nothing - identifier is already "_"
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      break;
+    default:
+      add_error (
+	Error (ident_tok->get_locus (),
+	       "expected item name (identifier or %<_%>) in constant item "
+	       "declaration - found %qs",
+	       ident_tok->get_token_description ()));
+
+      skip_after_semicolon ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  if (!skip_token (COLON))
+    {
+      skip_after_semicolon ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  // parse constant type (required)
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = parse_type ();
+
+  if (!skip_token (EQUAL))
+    {
+      skip_after_semicolon ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  // parse constant expression (required)
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr = parse_expr ();
+
+  if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
+    {
+      // skip somewhere?
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ConstantItem> (
+    new AST::ConstantItem (std::move (ident), std::move (vis), std::move (type),
+			   std::move (expr), std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
+}
+
+// Parses a "static item" (static storage item, with 'static lifetime).
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::StaticItem>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_static_item (AST::Visibility vis,
+					       AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
+{
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+  skip_token (STATIC_TOK);
+
+  // determine whether static item is mutable
+  bool is_mut = false;
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == MUT)
+    {
+      is_mut = true;
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+    }
+
+  const_TokenPtr ident_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
+  if (ident_tok == nullptr)
+    return nullptr;
+
+  Identifier ident = ident_tok->get_str ();
+
+  if (!skip_token (COLON))
+    {
+      skip_after_semicolon ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  // parse static item type (required)
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = parse_type ();
+
+  if (!skip_token (EQUAL))
+    {
+      skip_after_semicolon ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  // parse static item expression (required)
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr = parse_expr ();
+
+  if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
+    {
+      // skip after somewhere
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  return std::unique_ptr<AST::StaticItem> (
+    new AST::StaticItem (std::move (ident), is_mut, std::move (type),
+			 std::move (expr), std::move (vis),
+			 std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
+}
+
+// Parses a trait definition item, including unsafe ones.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::Trait>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_trait (AST::Visibility vis,
+					 AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
+{
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+  bool is_unsafe = false;
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == UNSAFE)
+    {
+      is_unsafe = true;
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+    }
+
+  skip_token (TRAIT);
+
+  // parse trait name
+  const_TokenPtr ident_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
+  if (ident_tok == nullptr)
+    return nullptr;
+
+  Identifier ident = ident_tok->get_str ();
+
+  // parse generic parameters (if they exist)
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params
+    = parse_generic_params_in_angles ();
+
+  // create placeholder type param bounds in case they don't exist
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>> type_param_bounds;
+
+  // parse type param bounds (if they exist)
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COLON)
+    {
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      type_param_bounds = parse_type_param_bounds (
+	[] (TokenId id) { return id == WHERE || id == LEFT_CURLY; });
+      // type_param_bounds = parse_type_param_bounds ();
+    }
+
+  // parse where clause (if it exists)
+  AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();
+
+  if (!skip_token (LEFT_CURLY))
+    {
+      skip_after_end_block ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  // parse inner attrs (if they exist)
+  AST::AttrVec inner_attrs = parse_inner_attributes ();
+
+  // parse trait items
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitItem>> trait_items;
+
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_CURLY)
+    {
+      std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitItem> trait_item = parse_trait_item ();
+
+      if (trait_item == nullptr)
+	{
+	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		       "failed to parse trait item in trait");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+      trait_items.push_back (std::move (trait_item));
+
+      t = lexer.peek_token ();
+    }
+
+  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
+    {
+      // skip after something
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  trait_items.shrink_to_fit ();
+  return std::unique_ptr<AST::Trait> (
+    new AST::Trait (std::move (ident), is_unsafe, std::move (generic_params),
+		    std::move (type_param_bounds), std::move (where_clause),
+		    std::move (trait_items), std::move (vis),
+		    std::move (outer_attrs), std::move (inner_attrs), locus));
+}
+
+// Parses a trait item used inside traits (not trait, the Item).
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitItem>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_trait_item ()
+{
+  // parse outer attributes (if they exist)
+  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();
+
+  // lookahead to determine what type of trait item to parse
+  const_TokenPtr tok = lexer.peek_token ();
+  switch (tok->get_id ())
+    {
+    case TYPE:
+      return parse_trait_type (std::move (outer_attrs));
+    case CONST:
+      // disambiguate with function qualifier
+      if (lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == IDENTIFIER)
+	{
+	  return parse_trait_const (std::move (outer_attrs));
+	}
+      // else, fallthrough to function
+      // TODO: find out how to disable gcc "implicit fallthrough" error
+      gcc_fallthrough ();
+    case UNSAFE:
+    case EXTERN_TOK:
+      case FN_TOK: {
+	/* function and method can't be disambiguated by lookahead alone
+	 * (without a lot of work and waste), so either make a
+	 * "parse_trait_function_or_method" or parse here mostly and pass in
+	 * most parameters (or if short enough, parse whole thing here). */
+	// parse function and method here
+
+	// parse function or method qualifiers
+	AST::FunctionQualifiers qualifiers = parse_function_qualifiers ();
+
+	skip_token (FN_TOK);
+
+	// parse function or method name
+	const_TokenPtr ident_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
+	if (ident_tok == nullptr)
+	  return nullptr;
+
+	Identifier ident = ident_tok->get_str ();
+
+	// parse generic params
+	std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params
+	  = parse_generic_params_in_angles ();
+
+	if (!skip_token (LEFT_PAREN))
+	  {
+	    // skip after somewhere?
+	    return nullptr;
+	  }
+
+	/* now for function vs method disambiguation - method has opening
+	 * "self" param */
+	AST::SelfParam self_param = parse_self_param ();
+	/* FIXME: ensure that self param doesn't accidently consume tokens for
+	 * a function */
+	bool is_method = false;
+	if (!self_param.is_error ())
+	  {
+	    is_method = true;
+
+	    /* skip comma so function and method regular params can be parsed
+	     * in same way */
+	    if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COMMA)
+	      lexer.skip_token ();
+	  }
+
+	// parse trait function params
+	std::vector<AST::FunctionParam> function_params
+	  = parse_function_params (
+	    [] (TokenId id) { return id == RIGHT_PAREN; });
+
+	if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
+	  {
+	    // skip after somewhere?
+	    return nullptr;
+	  }
+
+	// parse return type (optional)
+	std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> return_type = parse_function_return_type ();
+
+	// parse where clause (optional)
+	AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();
+
+	// parse semicolon or function definition (in block)
+	const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+	std::unique_ptr<AST::BlockExpr> definition = nullptr;
+	switch (t->get_id ())
+	  {
+	  case SEMICOLON:
+	    lexer.skip_token ();
+	    // definition is already nullptr, so don't need to change it
+	    break;
+	  case LEFT_CURLY:
+	    definition = parse_block_expr ();
+	    /* FIXME: are these outer attributes meant to be passed into the
+	     * block? */
+	    break;
+	  default:
+	    add_error (
+	      Error (t->get_locus (),
+		     "expected %<;%> or definiton at the end of trait %s "
+		     "definition - found %qs instead",
+		     is_method ? "method" : "function",
+		     t->get_token_description ()));
+
+	    // skip?
+	    return nullptr;
+	  }
+
+	// do actual if instead of ternary for return value optimisation
+	if (is_method)
+	  {
+	    AST::TraitMethodDecl method_decl (std::move (ident),
+					      std::move (qualifiers),
+					      std::move (generic_params),
+					      std::move (self_param),
+					      std::move (function_params),
+					      std::move (return_type),
+					      std::move (where_clause));
+
+	    // TODO: does this (method_decl) need move?
+	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitItemMethod> (
+	      new AST::TraitItemMethod (std::move (method_decl),
+					std::move (definition),
+					std::move (outer_attrs),
+					tok->get_locus ()));
+	  }
+	else
+	  {
+	    AST::TraitFunctionDecl function_decl (std::move (ident),
+						  std::move (qualifiers),
+						  std::move (generic_params),
+						  std::move (function_params),
+						  std::move (return_type),
+						  std::move (where_clause));
+
+	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitItemFunc> (new AST::TraitItemFunc (
+	      std::move (function_decl), std::move (definition),
+	      std::move (outer_attrs), tok->get_locus ()));
+	  }
+      }
+      default: {
+	// TODO: try and parse macro invocation semi - if fails, maybe error.
+	std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitItem> macro_invoc
+	  = parse_macro_invocation_semi (outer_attrs);
+
+	if (macro_invoc == nullptr)
+	  {
+	    // TODO: error?
+	    return nullptr;
+	  }
+	else
+	  {
+	    return macro_invoc;
+	  }
+	/* FIXME: macro invocations can only start with certain tokens. be
+	 * more picky with these? */
+      }
+    }
+}
+
+// Parse a typedef trait item.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitItemType>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_trait_type (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
+{
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+  skip_token (TYPE);
+
+  const_TokenPtr ident_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
+  if (ident_tok == nullptr)
+    return nullptr;
+
+  Identifier ident = ident_tok->get_str ();
+
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>> bounds;
+
+  // parse optional colon
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COLON)
+    {
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      // parse optional type param bounds
+      bounds
+	= parse_type_param_bounds ([] (TokenId id) { return id == SEMICOLON; });
+      // bounds = parse_type_param_bounds ();
+    }
+
+  if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
+    {
+      // skip?
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  return std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitItemType> (
+    new AST::TraitItemType (std::move (ident), std::move (bounds),
+			    std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
+}
+
+// Parses a constant trait item.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitItemConst>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_trait_const (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
+{
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+  skip_token (CONST);
+
+  // parse constant item name
+  const_TokenPtr ident_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
+  if (ident_tok == nullptr)
+    return nullptr;
+
+  Identifier ident = ident_tok->get_str ();
+
+  if (!skip_token (COLON))
+    {
+      skip_after_semicolon ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  // parse constant trait item type
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = parse_type ();
+
+  // parse constant trait body expression, if it exists
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> const_body = nullptr;
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == EQUAL)
+    {
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      // expression must exist, so parse it
+      const_body = parse_expr ();
+    }
+
+  if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
+    {
+      // skip after something?
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  return std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitItemConst> (
+    new AST::TraitItemConst (std::move (ident), std::move (type),
+			     std::move (const_body), std::move (outer_attrs),
+			     locus));
+}
+
+/* Parses a struct "impl" item (both inherent impl and trait impl can be
+ * parsed here), */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::Impl>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_impl (AST::Visibility vis,
+					AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
+{
+  /* Note that only trait impls are allowed to be unsafe. So if unsafe, it
+   * must be a trait impl. However, this isn't enough for full disambiguation,
+   * so don't branch here. */
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+  bool is_unsafe = false;
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == UNSAFE)
+    {
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      is_unsafe = true;
+    }
+
+  if (!skip_token (IMPL))
+    {
+      skip_after_next_block ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  // parse generic params (shared by trait and inherent impls)
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params
+    = parse_generic_params_in_angles ();
+
+  // Again, trait impl-only feature, but optional one, so can be used for
+  // branching yet.
+  bool has_exclam = false;
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == EXCLAM)
+    {
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      has_exclam = true;
+    }
+
+  /* FIXME: code that doesn't look shit for TypePath. Also, make sure this
+   * doesn't parse too much and not work. */
+  AST::TypePath type_path = parse_type_path ();
+  if (type_path.is_error () || lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != FOR)
+    {
+      /* cannot parse type path (or not for token next, at least), so must be
+       * inherent impl */
+
+      // hacky conversion of TypePath stack object to Type pointer
+      std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = nullptr;
+      if (!type_path.is_error ())
+	type = std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePath> (
+	  new AST::TypePath (std::move (type_path)));
+      else
+	type = parse_type ();
+
+      // Type is required, so error if null
+      if (type == nullptr)
+	{
+	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		       "could not parse type in inherent impl");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  skip_after_next_block ();
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+
+      // parse optional where clause
+      AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();
+
+      if (!skip_token (LEFT_CURLY))
+	{
+	  // TODO: does this still skip properly?
+	  skip_after_end_block ();
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+
+      // parse inner attributes (optional)
+      AST::AttrVec inner_attrs = parse_inner_attributes ();
+
+      // parse inherent impl items
+      std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::InherentImplItem>> impl_items;
+
+      const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+      while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_CURLY)
+	{
+	  std::unique_ptr<AST::InherentImplItem> impl_item
+	    = parse_inherent_impl_item ();
+
+	  if (impl_item == nullptr)
+	    {
+	      Error error (
+		lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		"failed to parse inherent impl item in inherent impl");
+	      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	      return nullptr;
+	    }
+
+	  impl_items.push_back (std::move (impl_item));
+
+	  t = lexer.peek_token ();
+	}
+
+      if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
+	{
+	  // skip somewhere
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+
+      // DEBUG
+      rust_debug ("successfully parsed inherent impl");
+
+      impl_items.shrink_to_fit ();
+
+      return std::unique_ptr<AST::InherentImpl> (new AST::InherentImpl (
+	std::move (impl_items), std::move (generic_params), std::move (type),
+	std::move (where_clause), std::move (vis), std::move (inner_attrs),
+	std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
+    }
+  else
+    {
+      // type path must both be valid and next token is for, so trait impl
+      if (!skip_token (FOR))
+	{
+	  skip_after_next_block ();
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+
+      // parse type
+      std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = parse_type ();
+      // ensure type is included as it is required
+      if (type == nullptr)
+	{
+	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		       "could not parse type in trait impl");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  skip_after_next_block ();
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+
+      // parse optional where clause
+      AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();
+
+      if (!skip_token (LEFT_CURLY))
+	{
+	  // TODO: does this still skip properly?
+	  skip_after_end_block ();
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+
+      // parse inner attributes (optional)
+      AST::AttrVec inner_attrs = parse_inner_attributes ();
+
+      // parse trait impl items
+      std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitImplItem>> impl_items;
+
+      const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+      while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_CURLY)
+	{
+	  std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitImplItem> impl_item
+	    = parse_trait_impl_item ();
+
+	  if (impl_item == nullptr)
+	    {
+	      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+			   "failed to parse trait impl item in trait impl");
+	      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	      return nullptr;
+	    }
+
+	  impl_items.push_back (std::move (impl_item));
+
+	  t = lexer.peek_token ();
+
+	  // DEBUG
+	  rust_debug ("successfully parsed a trait impl item");
+	}
+      // DEBUG
+      rust_debug ("successfully finished trait impl items");
+
+      if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
+	{
+	  // skip somewhere
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+
+      // DEBUG
+      rust_debug ("successfully parsed trait impl");
+
+      impl_items.shrink_to_fit ();
+
+      return std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitImpl> (
+	new AST::TraitImpl (std::move (type_path), is_unsafe, has_exclam,
+			    std::move (impl_items), std::move (generic_params),
+			    std::move (type), std::move (where_clause),
+			    std::move (vis), std::move (inner_attrs),
+			    std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
+    }
+}
+
+// Parses a single inherent impl item (item inside an inherent impl block).
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::InherentImplItem>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_inherent_impl_item ()
+{
+  // parse outer attributes (if they exist)
+  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();
+
+  // TODO: cleanup - currently an unreadable mess
+
+  // branch on next token:
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+    case IDENTIFIER:
+      // FIXME: Arthur: Do we need to some lookahead here?
+      return parse_macro_invocation_semi (outer_attrs);
+    case SUPER:
+    case SELF:
+    case CRATE:
+      case PUB: {
+	// visibility, so not a macro invocation semi - must be constant,
+	// function, or method
+	AST::Visibility vis = parse_visibility ();
+
+	// TODO: is a recursive call to parse_inherent_impl_item better?
+	switch (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ())
+	  {
+	  case EXTERN_TOK:
+	  case UNSAFE:
+	  case FN_TOK:
+	    // function or method
+	    return parse_inherent_impl_function_or_method (std::move (vis),
+							   std::move (
+							     outer_attrs));
+	  case CONST:
+	    // lookahead to resolve production - could be function/method or
+	    // const item
+	    t = lexer.peek_token (1);
+
+	    switch (t->get_id ())
+	      {
+	      case IDENTIFIER:
+	      case UNDERSCORE:
+		return parse_const_item (std::move (vis),
+					 std::move (outer_attrs));
+	      case UNSAFE:
+	      case EXTERN_TOK:
+	      case FN_TOK:
+		return parse_inherent_impl_function_or_method (std::move (vis),
+							       std::move (
+								 outer_attrs));
+	      default:
+		add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
+				  "unexpected token %qs in some sort of const "
+				  "item in inherent impl",
+				  t->get_token_description ()));
+
+		lexer.skip_token (1); // TODO: is this right thing to do?
+		return nullptr;
+	      }
+	  default:
+	    add_error (
+	      Error (t->get_locus (),
+		     "unrecognised token %qs for item in inherent impl",
+		     t->get_token_description ()));
+	    // skip?
+	    return nullptr;
+	  }
+      }
+    case EXTERN_TOK:
+    case UNSAFE:
+    case FN_TOK:
+      // function or method
+      return parse_inherent_impl_function_or_method (
+	AST::Visibility::create_private (), std::move (outer_attrs));
+    case CONST:
+      /* lookahead to resolve production - could be function/method or const
+       * item */
+      t = lexer.peek_token (1);
+
+      switch (t->get_id ())
+	{
+	case IDENTIFIER:
+	case UNDERSCORE:
+	  return parse_const_item (AST::Visibility::create_private (),
+				   std::move (outer_attrs));
+	case UNSAFE:
+	case EXTERN_TOK:
+	case FN_TOK:
+	  return parse_inherent_impl_function_or_method (
+	    AST::Visibility::create_private (), std::move (outer_attrs));
+	default:
+	  add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
+			    "unexpected token %qs in some sort of const item "
+			    "in inherent impl",
+			    t->get_token_description ()));
+
+	  lexer.skip_token (1); // TODO: is this right thing to do?
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+      gcc_unreachable ();
+    default:
+      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
+			"unrecognised token %qs for item in inherent impl",
+			t->get_token_description ()));
+
+      // skip?
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+}
+
+/* For internal use only by parse_inherent_impl_item() - splits giant method
+ * into smaller ones and prevents duplication of logic. Strictly, this parses
+ * a function or method item inside an inherent impl item block. */
+// TODO: make this a templated function with "return type" as type param -
+// InherentImplItem is this specialisation of the template while TraitImplItem
+// will be the other.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::InherentImplItem>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_inherent_impl_function_or_method (
+  AST::Visibility vis, AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
+{
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+  // parse function or method qualifiers
+  AST::FunctionQualifiers qualifiers = parse_function_qualifiers ();
+
+  skip_token (FN_TOK);
+
+  // parse function or method name
+  const_TokenPtr ident_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
+  if (ident_tok == nullptr)
+    return nullptr;
+
+  Identifier ident = ident_tok->get_str ();
+
+  // parse generic params
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params
+    = parse_generic_params_in_angles ();
+
+  if (!skip_token (LEFT_PAREN))
+    {
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  // now for function vs method disambiguation - method has opening "self"
+  // param
+  AST::SelfParam self_param = parse_self_param ();
+  /* FIXME: ensure that self param doesn't accidently consume tokens for a
+   * function one idea is to lookahead up to 4 tokens to see whether self is
+   * one of them */
+  bool is_method = false;
+  if (!self_param.is_error ())
+    {
+      is_method = true;
+
+      /* skip comma so function and method regular params can be parsed in
+       * same way */
+      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COMMA)
+	lexer.skip_token ();
+    }
+
+  // parse trait function params
+  std::vector<AST::FunctionParam> function_params
+    = parse_function_params ([] (TokenId id) { return id == RIGHT_PAREN; });
+
+  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
+    {
+      skip_after_end_block ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  // parse return type (optional)
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> return_type = parse_function_return_type ();
+
+  // parse where clause (optional)
+  AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();
+
+  // parse function definition (in block) - semicolon not allowed
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == SEMICOLON)
+    {
+      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		   "%s declaration in inherent impl not allowed - must have "
+		   "a definition",
+		   is_method ? "method" : "function");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::BlockExpr> body = parse_block_expr ();
+  if (body == nullptr)
+    {
+      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		   "could not parse definition in inherent impl %s definition",
+		   is_method ? "method" : "function");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      skip_after_end_block ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  // do actual if instead of ternary for return value optimisation
+  if (is_method)
+    {
+      return std::unique_ptr<AST::Method> (
+	new AST::Method (std::move (ident), std::move (qualifiers),
+			 std::move (generic_params), std::move (self_param),
+			 std::move (function_params), std::move (return_type),
+			 std::move (where_clause), std::move (body),
+			 std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
+    }
+  else
+    {
+      return std::unique_ptr<AST::Function> (
+	new AST::Function (std::move (ident), std::move (qualifiers),
+			   std::move (generic_params),
+			   std::move (function_params), std::move (return_type),
+			   std::move (where_clause), std::move (body),
+			   std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
+    }
+}
+
+// Parses a single trait impl item (item inside a trait impl block).
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitImplItem>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_trait_impl_item ()
+{
+  // parse outer attributes (if they exist)
+  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();
+
+  // TODO: clean this function up, it is basically unreadable hacks
+
+  // branch on next token:
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+    case IDENTIFIER:
+    case SUPER:
+    case SELF:
+    case CRATE:
+    case DOLLAR_SIGN:
+      // these seem to be SimplePath tokens, so this is a macro invocation
+      // semi
+      return parse_macro_invocation_semi (std::move (outer_attrs));
+    case TYPE:
+      return parse_type_alias (AST::Visibility::create_private (),
+			       std::move (outer_attrs));
+      case PUB: {
+	// visibility, so not a macro invocation semi - must be constant,
+	// function, or method
+	AST::Visibility vis = parse_visibility ();
+
+	// TODO: is a recursive call to parse_trait_impl_item better?
+	switch (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ())
+	  {
+	  case TYPE:
+	    return parse_type_alias (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
+	  case EXTERN_TOK:
+	  case UNSAFE:
+	  case FN_TOK:
+	    // function or method
+	    return parse_trait_impl_function_or_method (std::move (vis),
+							std::move (
+							  outer_attrs));
+	  case CONST:
+	    // lookahead to resolve production - could be function/method or
+	    // const item
+	    t = lexer.peek_token (1);
+
+	    switch (t->get_id ())
+	      {
+	      case IDENTIFIER:
+	      case UNDERSCORE:
+		return parse_const_item (std::move (vis),
+					 std::move (outer_attrs));
+	      case UNSAFE:
+	      case EXTERN_TOK:
+	      case FN_TOK:
+		return parse_trait_impl_function_or_method (std::move (vis),
+							    std::move (
+							      outer_attrs));
+	      default:
+		add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
+				  "unexpected token %qs in some sort of const "
+				  "item in trait impl",
+				  t->get_token_description ()));
+
+		lexer.skip_token (1); // TODO: is this right thing to do?
+		return nullptr;
+	      }
+	  default:
+	    add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
+			      "unrecognised token %qs for item in trait impl",
+			      t->get_token_description ()));
+
+	    // skip?
+	    return nullptr;
+	  }
+      }
+    case EXTERN_TOK:
+    case UNSAFE:
+    case FN_TOK:
+      // function or method
+      return parse_trait_impl_function_or_method (
+	AST::Visibility::create_private (), std::move (outer_attrs));
+    case CONST:
+      // lookahead to resolve production - could be function/method or const
+      // item
+      t = lexer.peek_token (1);
+
+      switch (t->get_id ())
+	{
+	case IDENTIFIER:
+	case UNDERSCORE:
+	  return parse_const_item (AST::Visibility::create_private (),
+				   std::move (outer_attrs));
+	case UNSAFE:
+	case EXTERN_TOK:
+	case FN_TOK:
+	  return parse_trait_impl_function_or_method (
+	    AST::Visibility::create_private (), std::move (outer_attrs));
+	default:
+	  add_error (Error (
+	    t->get_locus (),
+	    "unexpected token %qs in some sort of const item in trait impl",
+	    t->get_token_description ()));
+
+	  lexer.skip_token (1); // TODO: is this right thing to do?
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+      gcc_unreachable ();
+    default:
+      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
+			"unrecognised token %qs for item in trait impl",
+			t->get_token_description ()));
+
+      // skip?
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+}
+
+/* For internal use only by parse_trait_impl_item() - splits giant method into
+ * smaller ones and prevents duplication of logic. Strictly, this parses a
+ * function or method item inside a trait impl item block. */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitImplItem>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_trait_impl_function_or_method (
+  AST::Visibility vis, AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
+{
+  // this shares virtually all logic with
+  // parse_inherent_impl_function_or_method
+  // - template?
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+
+  // parse function or method qualifiers
+  AST::FunctionQualifiers qualifiers = parse_function_qualifiers ();
+
+  skip_token (FN_TOK);
+
+  // parse function or method name
+  const_TokenPtr ident_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
+  if (ident_tok == nullptr)
+    {
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+  Identifier ident = ident_tok->get_str ();
+
+  // DEBUG:
+  rust_debug (
+    "about to start parsing generic params in trait impl function or method");
+
+  // parse generic params
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params
+    = parse_generic_params_in_angles ();
+
+  // DEBUG:
+  rust_debug (
+    "finished parsing generic params in trait impl function or method");
+
+  if (!skip_token (LEFT_PAREN))
+    {
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  // now for function vs method disambiguation - method has opening "self"
+  // param
+  AST::SelfParam self_param = parse_self_param ();
+  // FIXME: ensure that self param doesn't accidently consume tokens for a
+  // function
+  bool is_method = false;
+  if (!self_param.is_error ())
+    {
+      is_method = true;
+
+      // skip comma so function and method regular params can be parsed in
+      // same way
+      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COMMA)
+	{
+	  lexer.skip_token ();
+	}
+
+      // DEBUG
+      rust_debug ("successfully parsed self param in method trait impl item");
+    }
+
+  // DEBUG
+  rust_debug (
+    "started to parse function params in function or method trait impl item");
+
+  // parse trait function params (only if next token isn't right paren)
+  std::vector<AST::FunctionParam> function_params;
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != RIGHT_PAREN)
+    {
+      function_params
+	= parse_function_params ([] (TokenId id) { return id == RIGHT_PAREN; });
+
+      if (function_params.empty ())
+	{
+	  Error error (
+	    lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+	    "failed to parse function params in trait impl %s definition",
+	    is_method ? "method" : "function");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  skip_after_next_block ();
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+    }
+
+  // DEBUG
+  rust_debug ("successfully parsed function params in function or method "
+	      "trait impl item");
+
+  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
+    {
+      skip_after_next_block ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  // parse return type (optional)
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> return_type = parse_function_return_type ();
+
+  // DEBUG
+  rust_debug (
+    "successfully parsed return type in function or method trait impl item");
+
+  // parse where clause (optional)
+  AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();
+
+  // DEBUG
+  rust_debug (
+    "successfully parsed where clause in function or method trait impl item");
+
+  // parse function definition (in block) - semicolon not allowed
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == SEMICOLON)
+    {
+      Error error (
+	lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+	"%s declaration in trait impl not allowed - must have a definition",
+	is_method ? "method" : "function");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::BlockExpr> body = parse_block_expr ();
+  if (body == nullptr)
+    {
+      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		   "could not parse definition in trait impl %s definition",
+		   is_method ? "method" : "function");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      skip_after_end_block ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  // do actual if instead of ternary for return value optimisation
+  if (is_method)
+    {
+      return std::unique_ptr<AST::Method> (
+	new AST::Method (std::move (ident), std::move (qualifiers),
+			 std::move (generic_params), std::move (self_param),
+			 std::move (function_params), std::move (return_type),
+			 std::move (where_clause), std::move (body),
+			 std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
+    }
+  else
+    {
+      return std::unique_ptr<AST::Function> (
+	new AST::Function (std::move (ident), std::move (qualifiers),
+			   std::move (generic_params),
+			   std::move (function_params), std::move (return_type),
+			   std::move (where_clause), std::move (body),
+			   std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
+    }
+}
+
+// Parses an extern block of declarations.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternBlock>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_extern_block (AST::Visibility vis,
+						AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
+{
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+  skip_token (EXTERN_TOK);
+
+  // detect optional abi name
+  std::string abi;
+  const_TokenPtr next_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
+  if (next_tok->get_id () == STRING_LITERAL)
+    {
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      abi = next_tok->get_str ();
+    }
+
+  if (!skip_token (LEFT_CURLY))
+    {
+      skip_after_end_block ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  AST::AttrVec inner_attrs = parse_inner_attributes ();
+
+  // parse declarations inside extern block
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternalItem>> extern_items;
+
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_CURLY)
+    {
+      std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternalItem> extern_item = parse_external_item ();
+
+      if (extern_item == nullptr)
+	{
+	  Error error (t->get_locus (),
+		       "failed to parse external item despite not reaching "
+		       "end of extern block");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+
+      extern_items.push_back (std::move (extern_item));
+
+      t = lexer.peek_token ();
+    }
+
+  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
+    {
+      // skip somewhere
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  extern_items.shrink_to_fit ();
+
+  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternBlock> (
+    new AST::ExternBlock (std::move (abi), std::move (extern_items),
+			  std::move (vis), std::move (inner_attrs),
+			  std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
+}
+
+// Parses a single extern block item (static or function declaration).
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternalItem>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_external_item ()
+{
+  // parse optional outer attributes
+  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();
+
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+
+  // parse optional visibility
+  AST::Visibility vis = parse_visibility ();
+
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+    case IDENTIFIER:
+      return parse_macro_invocation_semi (outer_attrs);
+      case STATIC_TOK: {
+	// parse extern static item
+	lexer.skip_token ();
+
+	// parse mut (optional)
+	bool has_mut = false;
+	if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == MUT)
+	  {
+	    lexer.skip_token ();
+	    has_mut = true;
+	  }
+
+	// parse identifier
+	const_TokenPtr ident_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
+	if (ident_tok == nullptr)
+	  {
+	    skip_after_semicolon ();
+	    return nullptr;
+	  }
+	Identifier ident = ident_tok->get_str ();
+
+	if (!skip_token (COLON))
+	  {
+	    skip_after_semicolon ();
+	    return nullptr;
+	  }
+
+	// parse type (required)
+	std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = parse_type ();
+	if (type == nullptr)
+	  {
+	    Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+			 "failed to parse type in external static item");
+	    add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	    skip_after_semicolon ();
+	    return nullptr;
+	  }
+
+	if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
+	  {
+	    // skip after somewhere?
+	    return nullptr;
+	  }
+
+	return std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternalStaticItem> (
+	  new AST::ExternalStaticItem (std::move (ident), std::move (type),
+				       has_mut, std::move (vis),
+				       std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
+      }
+      case FN_TOK: {
+	// parse extern function declaration item
+	// skip function token
+	lexer.skip_token ();
+
+	// parse identifier
+	const_TokenPtr ident_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
+	if (ident_tok == nullptr)
+	  {
+	    skip_after_semicolon ();
+	    return nullptr;
+	  }
+	Identifier ident = ident_tok->get_str ();
+
+	// parse (optional) generic params
+	std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params
+	  = parse_generic_params_in_angles ();
+
+	if (!skip_token (LEFT_PAREN))
+	  {
+	    skip_after_semicolon ();
+	    return nullptr;
+	  }
+
+	// parse parameters
+	std::vector<AST::NamedFunctionParam> function_params;
+	bool is_variadic = false;
+	AST::AttrVec variadic_attrs;
+
+	const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+	while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_PAREN)
+	  {
+	    AST::AttrVec maybe_variadic_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();
+	    if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == ELLIPSIS)
+	      {
+		// variadic - use attrs for this
+		lexer.skip_token ();
+		is_variadic = true;
+		variadic_attrs = std::move (maybe_variadic_attrs);
+		t = lexer.peek_token ();
+
+		if (t->get_id () != RIGHT_PAREN)
+		  {
+		    Error error (t->get_locus (),
+				 "expected right parentheses after variadic in "
+				 "named function "
+				 "parameters, found %qs",
+				 t->get_token_description ());
+		    add_error (std::move (error));
+
+		    skip_after_semicolon ();
+		    return nullptr;
+		  }
+
+		break;
+	      }
+
+	    AST::NamedFunctionParam param
+	      = parse_named_function_param (std::move (maybe_variadic_attrs));
+	    if (param.is_error ())
+	      {
+		Error error (t->get_locus (), "could not parse named function "
+					      "parameter in external function");
+		add_error (std::move (error));
+
+		skip_after_semicolon ();
+		return nullptr;
+	      }
+	    function_params.push_back (std::move (param));
+
+	    if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
+	      break;
+
+	    // skip comma
+	    lexer.skip_token ();
+	    t = lexer.peek_token ();
+	  }
+
+	if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
+	  {
+	    skip_after_semicolon ();
+	    return nullptr;
+	  }
+
+	// parse (optional) return type
+	std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> return_type = parse_function_return_type ();
+
+	// parse (optional) where clause
+	AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();
+
+	if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
+	  {
+	    // skip somewhere?
+	    return nullptr;
+	  }
+
+	function_params.shrink_to_fit ();
+
+	return std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternalFunctionItem> (
+	  new AST::ExternalFunctionItem (
+	    std::move (ident), std::move (generic_params),
+	    std::move (return_type), std::move (where_clause),
+	    std::move (function_params), is_variadic,
+	    std::move (variadic_attrs), std::move (vis),
+	    std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
+      }
+    default:
+      // error
+      add_error (
+	Error (t->get_locus (),
+	       "unrecognised token %qs in extern block item declaration",
+	       t->get_token_description ()));
+
+      skip_after_semicolon ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+}
+
+/* Parses an extern block function param (with "pattern" being _ or an
+ * identifier). */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::NamedFunctionParam
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_named_function_param (
+  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
+{
+  // parse identifier/_
+  std::string name;
+
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  Location name_location = t->get_locus ();
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+    case IDENTIFIER:
+      name = t->get_str ();
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      break;
+    case UNDERSCORE:
+      name = "_";
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      break;
+    default:
+      // this is not a function param, but not necessarily an error
+      return AST::NamedFunctionParam::create_error ();
+    }
+
+  if (!skip_token (COLON))
+    {
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      return AST::NamedFunctionParam::create_error ();
+    }
+
+  // parse (required) type
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> param_type = parse_type ();
+  if (param_type == nullptr)
+    {
+      Error error (
+	lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+	"could not parse param type in extern block function declaration");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      skip_after_semicolon ();
+      return AST::NamedFunctionParam::create_error ();
+    }
+
+  return AST::NamedFunctionParam (std::move (name), std::move (param_type),
+				  std::move (outer_attrs), name_location);
+}
+
+// Parses a statement (will further disambiguate any statement).
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::Stmt>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_stmt (ParseRestrictions restrictions)
+{
+  // quick exit for empty statement
+  // FIXME: Can we have empty statements without semicolons? Just nothing?
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  if (t->get_id () == SEMICOLON)
+    {
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      return std::unique_ptr<AST::EmptyStmt> (
+	new AST::EmptyStmt (t->get_locus ()));
+    }
+
+  // parse outer attributes
+  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();
+
+  // parsing this will be annoying because of the many different possibilities
+  /* best may be just to copy paste in parse_item switch, and failing that try
+   * to parse outer attributes, and then pass them in to either a let
+   * statement or (fallback) expression statement. */
+  // FIXME: think of a way to do this without such a large switch?
+  t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+    case LET:
+      // let statement
+      return parse_let_stmt (std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);
+    case PUB:
+    case MOD:
+    case EXTERN_TOK:
+    case USE:
+    case FN_TOK:
+    case TYPE:
+    case STRUCT_TOK:
+    case ENUM_TOK:
+    case CONST:
+    case STATIC_TOK:
+    case TRAIT:
+    case IMPL:
+    /* TODO: implement union keyword but not really because of
+     * context-dependence crappy hack way to parse a union written below to
+     * separate it from the good code. */
+    // case UNION:
+    case UNSAFE: // maybe - unsafe traits are a thing
+      /* if any of these (should be all possible VisItem prefixes), parse a
+       * VisItem can't parse item because would require reparsing outer
+       * attributes */
+      return parse_vis_item (std::move (outer_attrs));
+      break;
+    case SUPER:
+    case SELF:
+    case CRATE:
+    case DOLLAR_SIGN:
+      // almost certainly macro invocation semi
+      return parse_macro_item (std::move (outer_attrs));
+      break;
+    // crappy hack to do union "keyword"
+    case IDENTIFIER:
+      if (t->get_str () == "union"
+	  && lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == IDENTIFIER)
+	{
+	  return parse_vis_item (std::move (outer_attrs));
+	  // or should this go straight to parsing union?
+	}
+      else if (t->get_str () == "macro_rules")
+	{
+	  // macro_rules! macro item
+	  return parse_macro_item (std::move (outer_attrs));
+	}
+      else if (lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION
+	       || lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == EXCLAM)
+	{
+	  // FIXME: ensure doesn't take any expressions by mistake
+	  /* path (probably) or macro invocation, so probably a macro
+	   * invocation semi */
+	  return parse_macro_item (std::move (outer_attrs));
+	}
+      gcc_fallthrough ();
+      // TODO: find out how to disable gcc "implicit fallthrough" warning
+    default:
+      // fallback: expression statement
+      return parse_expr_stmt (std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);
+      break;
+    }
+}
+
+// Parses a let statement.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::LetStmt>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_let_stmt (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+					    ParseRestrictions restrictions)
+{
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+  skip_token (LET);
+
+  // parse pattern (required)
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> pattern = parse_pattern ();
+  if (pattern == nullptr)
+    {
+      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		   "failed to parse pattern in let statement");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      skip_after_semicolon ();
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  // parse type declaration (optional)
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = nullptr;
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COLON)
+    {
+      // must have a type declaration
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      type = parse_type ();
+      if (type == nullptr)
+	{
+	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		       "failed to parse type in let statement");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  skip_after_semicolon ();
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+    }
+
+  // parse expression to set variable to (optional)
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr = nullptr;
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == EQUAL)
+    {
+      // must have an expression
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      expr = parse_expr ();
+      if (expr == nullptr)
+	{
+	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		       "failed to parse expression in let statement");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  skip_after_semicolon ();
+	  return nullptr;
+	}
+    }
+
+  if (restrictions.consume_semi)
+    if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
+      return nullptr;
+
+  return std::unique_ptr<AST::LetStmt> (
+    new AST::LetStmt (std::move (pattern), std::move (expr), std::move (type),
+		      std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
+}
+
+// Parses a type path.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::TypePath
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type_path ()
+{
+  bool has_opening_scope_resolution = false;
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION)
+    {
+      has_opening_scope_resolution = true;
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+    }
+
+  // create segment vector
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePathSegment>> segments;
+
+  // parse required initial segment
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePathSegment> initial_segment
+    = parse_type_path_segment ();
+  if (initial_segment == nullptr)
+    {
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      // don't necessarily throw error but yeah
+      return AST::TypePath::create_error ();
+    }
+  segments.push_back (std::move (initial_segment));
+
+  // parse optional segments (as long as scope resolution operator exists)
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  while (t->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION)
+    {
+      // skip scope resolution operator
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      // parse the actual segment - it is an error if it doesn't exist now
+      std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePathSegment> segment
+	= parse_type_path_segment ();
+      if (segment == nullptr)
+	{
+	  // skip after somewhere?
+	  Error error (t->get_locus (), "could not parse type path segment");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  return AST::TypePath::create_error ();
+	}
+
+      segments.push_back (std::move (segment));
+
+      t = lexer.peek_token ();
+    }
+
+  segments.shrink_to_fit ();
+
+  return AST::TypePath (std::move (segments), locus,
+			has_opening_scope_resolution);
+}
+
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::GenericArg
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_generic_arg ()
+{
+  auto tok = lexer.peek_token ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr = nullptr;
+
+  switch (tok->get_id ())
+    {
+      case IDENTIFIER: {
+	// This is a bit of a weird situation: With an identifier token, we
+	// could either have a valid type or a macro (FIXME: anything else?). So
+	// we need one bit of lookahead to differentiate if this is really
+	auto next_tok = lexer.peek_token (1);
+	if (next_tok->get_id () == EXCLAM)
+	  {
+	    auto type = parse_type ();
+	    if (type)
+	      return AST::GenericArg::create_type (std::move (type));
+	    else
+	      return AST::GenericArg::create_error ();
+	  }
+	lexer.skip_token ();
+	return AST::GenericArg::create_ambiguous (tok->get_str (),
+						  tok->get_locus ());
+      }
+    case LEFT_CURLY:
+      expr = parse_block_expr ();
+      break;
+    case MINUS:
+    case STRING_LITERAL:
+    case CHAR_LITERAL:
+    case INT_LITERAL:
+    case FLOAT_LITERAL:
+    case TRUE_LITERAL:
+    case FALSE_LITERAL:
+      expr = parse_literal_expr ();
+      break;
+      // FIXME: Because of this, error reporting is garbage for const generic
+      // parameter's default values
+      default: {
+	auto type = parse_type ();
+	// FIXME: Find a better way to do this?
+	if (type)
+	  return AST::GenericArg::create_type (std::move (type));
+	else
+	  return AST::GenericArg::create_error ();
+      }
+    }
+
+  if (!expr)
+    return AST::GenericArg::create_error ();
+
+  return AST::GenericArg::create_const (std::move (expr));
+}
+
+// Parses the generic arguments in each path segment.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::GenericArgs
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_path_generic_args ()
+{
+  if (!skip_token (LEFT_ANGLE))
+    {
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      return AST::GenericArgs::create_empty ();
+    }
+
+  // We need to parse all lifetimes, then parse types and const generics in
+  // any order.
+
+  // try to parse lifetimes first
+  std::vector<AST::Lifetime> lifetime_args;
+
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  Location locus = t->get_locus ();
+  while (!is_right_angle_tok (t->get_id ()))
+    {
+      AST::Lifetime lifetime = parse_lifetime ();
+      if (lifetime.is_error ())
+	{
+	  // not necessarily an error
+	  break;
+	}
+
+      lifetime_args.push_back (std::move (lifetime));
+
+      // if next token isn't comma, then it must be end of list
+      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
+	{
+	  break;
+	}
+      // skip comma
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      t = lexer.peek_token ();
+    }
+
+  // try to parse types and const generics second
+  std::vector<AST::GenericArg> generic_args;
+
+  // TODO: think of better control structure
+  t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  while (!is_right_angle_tok (t->get_id ()))
+    {
+      // FIXME: Is it fine to break if there is one binding? Can't there be
+      // bindings in between types?
+
+      // ensure not binding being parsed as type accidently
+      if (t->get_id () == IDENTIFIER
+	  && lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == EQUAL)
+	break;
+
+      auto arg = parse_generic_arg ();
+      if (!arg.is_error ())
+	{
+	  generic_args.emplace_back (std::move (arg));
+	}
+
+      // FIXME: Do we need to break if we encounter an error?
+
+      // if next token isn't comma, then it must be end of list
+      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
+	break;
+
+      // skip comma
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+      t = lexer.peek_token ();
+    }
+
+  // try to parse bindings third
+  std::vector<AST::GenericArgsBinding> binding_args;
+
+  // TODO: think of better control structure
+  t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  while (!is_right_angle_tok (t->get_id ()))
+    {
+      AST::GenericArgsBinding binding = parse_generic_args_binding ();
+      if (binding.is_error ())
+	{
+	  // not necessarily an error
+	  break;
+	}
+
+      binding_args.push_back (std::move (binding));
+
+      // if next token isn't comma, then it must be end of list
+      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
+	{
+	  break;
+	}
+      // skip comma
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      t = lexer.peek_token ();
+    }
+
+  // skip any trailing commas
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COMMA)
+    lexer.skip_token ();
+
+  if (!skip_generics_right_angle ())
+    return AST::GenericArgs::create_empty ();
+
+  lifetime_args.shrink_to_fit ();
+  generic_args.shrink_to_fit ();
+  binding_args.shrink_to_fit ();
+
+  return AST::GenericArgs (std::move (lifetime_args), std::move (generic_args),
+			   std::move (binding_args), locus);
+}
+
+// Parses a binding in a generic args path segment.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::GenericArgsBinding
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_generic_args_binding ()
+{
+  const_TokenPtr ident_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
+  if (ident_tok->get_id () != IDENTIFIER)
+    {
+      // allow non error-inducing use
+      // skip somewhere?
+      return AST::GenericArgsBinding::create_error ();
+    }
+  lexer.skip_token ();
+  Identifier ident = ident_tok->get_str ();
+
+  if (!skip_token (EQUAL))
+    {
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      return AST::GenericArgsBinding::create_error ();
+    }
+
+  // parse type (required)
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = parse_type ();
+  if (type == nullptr)
+    {
+      // skip somewhere?
+      return AST::GenericArgsBinding::create_error ();
+    }
+
+  return AST::GenericArgsBinding (std::move (ident), std::move (type),
+				  ident_tok->get_locus ());
+}
+
+/* Parses a single type path segment (not including opening scope resolution,
+ * but includes any internal ones). Includes generic args or type path
+ * functions too. */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePathSegment>
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type_path_segment ()
+{
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+  // parse ident segment part
+  AST::PathIdentSegment ident_segment = parse_path_ident_segment ();
+  if (ident_segment.is_error ())
+    {
+      // not necessarily an error
+      return nullptr;
+    }
+
+  /* lookahead to determine if variants exist - only consume scope resolution
+   * then */
+  bool has_separating_scope_resolution = false;
+  const_TokenPtr next = lexer.peek_token (1);
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION
+      && (next->get_id () == LEFT_ANGLE || next->get_id () == LEFT_PAREN))
+    {
+      has_separating_scope_resolution = true;
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+    }
+
+  // branch into variants on next token
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  switch (t->get_id ())
+    {
+      case LEFT_ANGLE: {
+	// parse generic args
+	AST::GenericArgs generic_args = parse_path_generic_args ();
+
+	return std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePathSegmentGeneric> (
+	  new AST::TypePathSegmentGeneric (std::move (ident_segment),
+					   has_separating_scope_resolution,
+					   std::move (generic_args), locus));
+      }
+      case LEFT_PAREN: {
+	// parse type path function
+	AST::TypePathFunction type_path_function
+	  = parse_type_path_function (locus);
+
+	if (type_path_function.is_error ())
+	  {
+	    // skip after somewhere?
+	    return nullptr;
+	  }
+
+	return std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePathSegmentFunction> (
+	  new AST::TypePathSegmentFunction (std::move (ident_segment),
+					    has_separating_scope_resolution,
+					    std::move (type_path_function),
+					    locus));
+      }
+    default:
+      // neither of them
+      return std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePathSegment> (
+	new AST::TypePathSegment (std::move (ident_segment),
+				  has_separating_scope_resolution, locus));
+    }
+  gcc_unreachable ();
+}
+
+// Parses a function call representation inside a type path.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::TypePathFunction
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type_path_function (Location id_location)
+{
+  if (!skip_token (LEFT_PAREN))
+    {
+      // skip somewhere?
+      return AST::TypePathFunction::create_error ();
+    }
+
+  // parse function inputs
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Type>> inputs;
+
+  while (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != RIGHT_PAREN)
+    {
+      std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = parse_type ();
+      if (type == nullptr)
+	{
+	  /* this is an error as there should've been a ')' there if there
+	   * wasn't a type */
+	  Error error (
+	    lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+	    "failed to parse type in parameters of type path function");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  // skip somewhere?
+	  return AST::TypePathFunction::create_error ();
+	}
+
+      inputs.push_back (std::move (type));
+
+      // skip commas, including trailing commas
+      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
+	break;
+
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+    }
+
+  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
+    {
+      // skip somewhere?
+      return AST::TypePathFunction::create_error ();
+    }
+
+  // parse optional return type
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> return_type = parse_function_return_type ();
+
+  inputs.shrink_to_fit ();
+  return AST::TypePathFunction (std::move (inputs), id_location,
+				std::move (return_type));
+}
+
+// Parses a path inside an expression that allows generic arguments.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::PathInExpression
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_path_in_expression ()
+{
+  Location locus = Linemap::unknown_location ();
+  bool has_opening_scope_resolution = false;
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION)
+    {
+      has_opening_scope_resolution = true;
+
+      locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+    }
+
+  // create segment vector
+  std::vector<AST::PathExprSegment> segments;
+
+  if (locus == Linemap::unknown_location ())
+    {
+      locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+    }
+
+  // parse required initial segment
+  AST::PathExprSegment initial_segment = parse_path_expr_segment ();
+  if (initial_segment.is_error ())
+    {
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      // don't necessarily throw error but yeah
+      return AST::PathInExpression::create_error ();
+    }
+  segments.push_back (std::move (initial_segment));
+
+  // parse optional segments (as long as scope resolution operator exists)
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  while (t->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION)
+    {
+      // skip scope resolution operator
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      // parse the actual segment - it is an error if it doesn't exist now
+      AST::PathExprSegment segment = parse_path_expr_segment ();
+      if (segment.is_error ())
+	{
+	  // skip after somewhere?
+	  Error error (t->get_locus (),
+		       "could not parse path expression segment");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  return AST::PathInExpression::create_error ();
+	}
+
+      segments.push_back (std::move (segment));
+
+      t = lexer.peek_token ();
+    }
+
+  segments.shrink_to_fit ();
+
+  return AST::PathInExpression (std::move (segments), {}, locus,
+				has_opening_scope_resolution);
+}
+
+/* Parses a single path in expression path segment (including generic
+ * arguments). */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::PathExprSegment
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_path_expr_segment ()
+{
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+  // parse ident segment
+  AST::PathIdentSegment ident = parse_path_ident_segment ();
+  if (ident.is_error ())
+    {
+      // not necessarily an error?
+      return AST::PathExprSegment::create_error ();
+    }
+
+  // parse generic args (and turbofish), if they exist
+  /* use lookahead to determine if they actually exist (don't want to
+   * accidently parse over next ident segment) */
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION
+      && lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == LEFT_ANGLE)
+    {
+      // skip scope resolution
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      AST::GenericArgs generic_args = parse_path_generic_args ();
+
+      return AST::PathExprSegment (std::move (ident), locus,
+				   std::move (generic_args));
+    }
+
+  // return a generic parameter-less expr segment if not found
+  return AST::PathExprSegment (std::move (ident), locus);
+}
+
+/* Parses a fully qualified path in expression (i.e. a pattern). FIXME does
+ * not parse outer attrs. */
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::QualifiedPathInExpression
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_qualified_path_in_expression (
+  Location pratt_parsed_loc)
+{
+  /* Note: the Rust grammar is defined in such a way that it is impossible to
+   * determine whether a prospective qualified path is a
+   * QualifiedPathInExpression or QualifiedPathInType in all cases by the
+   * rules themselves (the only possible difference is a TypePathSegment with
+   * function, and lookahead to find this is too difficult). However, as this
+   * is a pattern and QualifiedPathInType is a type, I believe it that their
+   * construction will not be confused (due to rules regarding patterns vs
+   * types).
+   * As such, this function will not attempt to minimise errors created by
+   * their confusion. */
+
+  // parse the qualified path type (required)
+  AST::QualifiedPathType qual_path_type
+    = parse_qualified_path_type (pratt_parsed_loc);
+  if (qual_path_type.is_error ())
+    {
+      // TODO: should this create a parse error?
+      return AST::QualifiedPathInExpression::create_error ();
+    }
+  Location locus = qual_path_type.get_locus ();
+
+  // parse path segments
+  std::vector<AST::PathExprSegment> segments;
+
+  // parse initial required segment
+  if (!expect_token (SCOPE_RESOLUTION))
+    {
+      // skip after somewhere?
+
+      return AST::QualifiedPathInExpression::create_error ();
+    }
+  AST::PathExprSegment initial_segment = parse_path_expr_segment ();
+  if (initial_segment.is_error ())
+    {
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		   "required initial path expression segment in "
+		   "qualified path in expression could not be parsed");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      return AST::QualifiedPathInExpression::create_error ();
+    }
+  segments.push_back (std::move (initial_segment));
+
+  // parse optional segments (as long as scope resolution operator exists)
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  while (t->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION)
+    {
+      // skip scope resolution operator
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      // parse the actual segment - it is an error if it doesn't exist now
+      AST::PathExprSegment segment = parse_path_expr_segment ();
+      if (segment.is_error ())
+	{
+	  // skip after somewhere?
+	  Error error (t->get_locus (),
+		       "could not parse path expression segment in qualified "
+		       "path in expression");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  return AST::QualifiedPathInExpression::create_error ();
+	}
+
+      segments.push_back (std::move (segment));
+
+      t = lexer.peek_token ();
+    }
+
+  segments.shrink_to_fit ();
+
+  // FIXME: outer attr parsing
+  return AST::QualifiedPathInExpression (std::move (qual_path_type),
+					 std::move (segments), {}, locus);
+}
+
+// Parses the type syntactical construction at the start of a qualified path.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::QualifiedPathType
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_qualified_path_type (
+  Location pratt_parsed_loc)
+{
+  Location locus = pratt_parsed_loc;
+  /* TODO: should this actually be error? is there anywhere where this could
+   * be valid? */
+  if (locus == Linemap::unknown_location ())
+    {
+      locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+      if (!skip_token (LEFT_ANGLE))
+	{
+	  // skip after somewhere?
+	  return AST::QualifiedPathType::create_error ();
+	}
+    }
+
+  // parse type (required)
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = parse_type ();
+  if (type == nullptr)
+    {
+      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		   "could not parse type in qualified path type");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      // skip somewhere?
+      return AST::QualifiedPathType::create_error ();
+    }
+
+  // parse optional as clause
+  AST::TypePath as_type_path = AST::TypePath::create_error ();
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == AS)
+    {
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      // parse type path, which is required now
+      as_type_path = parse_type_path ();
+      if (as_type_path.is_error ())
+	{
+	  Error error (
+	    lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+	    "could not parse type path in as clause in qualified path type");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  // skip somewhere?
+	  return AST::QualifiedPathType::create_error ();
+	}
+    }
+
+  /* NOTE: should actually be a right-angle token, so
+   * skip_generics_right_angle shouldn't be required */
+  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_ANGLE))
+    {
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      return AST::QualifiedPathType::create_error ();
+    }
+
+  return AST::QualifiedPathType (std::move (type), locus,
+				 std::move (as_type_path));
+}
+
+// Parses a fully qualified path in type (i.e. a type).
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::QualifiedPathInType
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_qualified_path_in_type ()
+{
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+  // parse the qualified path type (required)
+  AST::QualifiedPathType qual_path_type = parse_qualified_path_type ();
+  if (qual_path_type.is_error ())
+    {
+      // TODO: should this create a parse error?
+      return AST::QualifiedPathInType::create_error ();
+    }
+
+  // parse initial required segment
+  if (!expect_token (SCOPE_RESOLUTION))
+    {
+      // skip after somewhere?
+
+      return AST::QualifiedPathInType::create_error ();
+    }
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePathSegment> initial_segment
+    = parse_type_path_segment ();
+  if (initial_segment == nullptr)
+    {
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		   "required initial type path segment in qualified path in "
+		   "type could not be parsed");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      return AST::QualifiedPathInType::create_error ();
+    }
+
+  // parse optional segments (as long as scope resolution operator exists)
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePathSegment>> segments;
+  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
+  while (t->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION)
+    {
+      // skip scope resolution operator
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      // parse the actual segment - it is an error if it doesn't exist now
+      std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePathSegment> segment
+	= parse_type_path_segment ();
+      if (segment == nullptr)
+	{
+	  // skip after somewhere?
+	  Error error (
+	    t->get_locus (),
+	    "could not parse type path segment in qualified path in type");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  return AST::QualifiedPathInType::create_error ();
+	}
+
+      segments.push_back (std::move (segment));
+
+      t = lexer.peek_token ();
+    }
+
+  segments.shrink_to_fit ();
+
+  return AST::QualifiedPathInType (std::move (qual_path_type),
+				   std::move (initial_segment),
+				   std::move (segments), locus);
+}
+
+// Parses a self param. Also handles self param not existing.
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
+AST::SelfParam
+Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_self_param ()
+{
+  bool has_reference = false;
+  AST::Lifetime lifetime = AST::Lifetime::error ();
+
+  Location locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
+
+  // test if self is a reference parameter
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == AMP)
+    {
+      has_reference = true;
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      // now test whether it has a lifetime
+      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == LIFETIME)
+	{
+	  lifetime = parse_lifetime ();
+
+	  // something went wrong somehow
+	  if (lifetime.is_error ())
+	    {
+	      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+			   "failed to parse lifetime in self param");
+	      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	      // skip after somewhere?
+	      return AST::SelfParam::create_error ();
+	    }
+	}
+    }
+
+  // test for mut
+  bool has_mut = false;
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == MUT)
+    {
+      has_mut = true;
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+    }
+
+  // skip self token
+  const_TokenPtr self_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
+  if (self_tok->get_id () != SELF)
+    {
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      return AST::SelfParam::create_error ();
+    }
+  lexer.skip_token ();
+
+  // parse optional type
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = nullptr;
+  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COLON)
+    {
+      lexer.skip_token ();
+
+      // type is now required
+      type = parse_type ();
+      if (type == nullptr)
+	{
+	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+		       "could not parse type in self param");
+	  add_error (std::move (error));
+
+	  // skip after somewhere?
+	  return AST::SelfParam::create_error ();
+	}
+    }
+
+  // ensure that cannot have both type and reference
+  if (type != nullptr && has_reference)
+    {
+      Error error (
+	lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
+	"cannot have both a reference and a type specified in a self param");
+      add_error (std::move (error));
+
+      // skip after somewhere?
+      return AST::SelfParam::create_error ();
+    }
+
+  if (has_reference)
+    {
+      return AST::SelfParam (std::move (lifetime), has_mut, locus);
+    }
+  else
+    {
+      // note that type may be nullptr here and that's fine
+      return AST::SelfParam (std::move (type), has_mut, locus);
+    }
+}
+
diff --git a/gcc/rust/parse/rust-parse.cc b/gcc/rust/parse/rust-parse.cc
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..f1e2caa258b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/gcc/rust/parse/rust-parse.cc
@@ -0,0 +1,328 @@
+/* This file is part of GCC.
+
+GCC is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify
+it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
+the Free Software Foundation; either version 3, or (at your option)
+any later version.
+
+GCC is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
+but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
+MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
+GNU General Public License for more details.
+
+You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
+along with GCC; see the file COPYING3.  If not see
+<http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>. */
+
+#include "rust-parse.h"
+#include "rust-linemap.h"
+#include "rust-diagnostics.h"
+
+namespace Rust {
+
+std::string
+extract_module_path (const AST::AttrVec &inner_attrs,
+		     const AST::AttrVec &outer_attrs, const std::string &name)
+{
+  AST::Attribute path_attr = AST::Attribute::create_empty ();
+  for (const auto &attr : inner_attrs)
+    {
+      if (attr.get_path ().as_string () == "path")
+	{
+	  path_attr = attr;
+	  break;
+	}
+    }
+
+  // Here, we found a path attribute, but it has no associated string. This is
+  // invalid
+  if (!path_attr.is_empty () && !path_attr.has_attr_input ())
+    {
+      rust_error_at (
+	path_attr.get_locus (),
+	// Split the format string so that -Wformat-diag does not complain...
+	"path attributes must contain a filename: '%s'", "#![path = \"file\"]");
+      return name;
+    }
+
+  for (const auto &attr : outer_attrs)
+    {
+      if (attr.get_path ().as_string () == "path")
+	{
+	  path_attr = attr;
+	  break;
+	}
+    }
+
+  // We didn't find a path attribute. This is not an error, there simply isn't
+  // one present
+  if (path_attr.is_empty ())
+    return name;
+
+  // Here, we found a path attribute, but it has no associated string. This is
+  // invalid
+  if (!path_attr.has_attr_input ())
+    {
+      rust_error_at (
+	path_attr.get_locus (),
+	// Split the format string so that -Wformat-diag does not complain...
+	"path attributes must contain a filename: '%s'", "#[path = \"file\"]");
+      return name;
+    }
+
+  auto path_value = path_attr.get_attr_input ().as_string ();
+
+  // At this point, the 'path' is of the following format: '= "<file.rs>"'
+  // We need to remove the equal sign and only keep the actual filename.
+  // In order to do this, we can simply go through the string until we find
+  // a character that is not an equal sign or whitespace
+  auto filename_begin = path_value.find_first_not_of ("=\t ");
+
+  auto path = path_value.substr (filename_begin);
+
+  // On windows, the path might mix '/' and '\' separators. Replace the
+  // UNIX-like separators by MSDOS separators to make sure the path will resolve
+  // properly.
+  //
+  // Source: rustc compiler
+  // (https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/blob/9863bf51a52b8e61bcad312f81b5193d53099f9f/compiler/rustc_expand/src/module.rs#L174)
+#if defined(HAVE_DOS_BASED_FILE_SYSTEM)
+  path.replace ('/', '\\');
+#endif /* HAVE_DOS_BASED_FILE_SYSTEM */
+
+  return path;
+}
+
+template <typename T>
+static bool
+contains (std::vector<T> &vec, T elm)
+{
+  return std::find (vec.begin (), vec.end (), elm) != vec.end ();
+}
+
+/**
+ * Avoid UB by calling .front() and .back() on empty containers...
+ */
+
+template <typename T>
+static const T *
+get_back_ptr (const std::vector<std::unique_ptr<T>> &values)
+{
+  if (values.empty ())
+    return nullptr;
+
+  return values.back ().get ();
+}
+
+template <typename T>
+static const T *
+get_front_ptr (const std::vector<std::unique_ptr<T>> &values)
+{
+  if (values.empty ())
+    return nullptr;
+
+  return values.front ().get ();
+}
+
+static bool
+peculiar_fragment_match_compatible_fragment (
+  const AST::MacroFragSpec &last_spec, const AST::MacroFragSpec &spec,
+  Location match_locus)
+{
+  static std::unordered_map<AST::MacroFragSpec::Kind,
+			    std::vector<AST::MacroFragSpec::Kind>>
+    fragment_follow_set
+    = {{AST::MacroFragSpec::PATH, {AST::MacroFragSpec::BLOCK}},
+       {AST::MacroFragSpec::TY, {AST::MacroFragSpec::BLOCK}},
+       {AST::MacroFragSpec::VIS,
+	{AST::MacroFragSpec::IDENT, AST::MacroFragSpec::TY,
+	 AST::MacroFragSpec::PATH}}};
+
+  auto is_valid
+    = contains (fragment_follow_set[last_spec.get_kind ()], spec.get_kind ());
+
+  if (!is_valid)
+    rust_error_at (
+      match_locus,
+      "fragment specifier %<%s%> is not allowed after %<%s%> fragments",
+      spec.as_string ().c_str (), last_spec.as_string ().c_str ());
+
+  return is_valid;
+}
+
+static bool
+peculiar_fragment_match_compatible (const AST::MacroMatchFragment &last_match,
+				    const AST::MacroMatch &match)
+{
+  static std::unordered_map<AST::MacroFragSpec::Kind, std::vector<TokenId>>
+    follow_set
+    = {{AST::MacroFragSpec::EXPR, {MATCH_ARROW, COMMA, SEMICOLON}},
+       {AST::MacroFragSpec::STMT, {MATCH_ARROW, COMMA, SEMICOLON}},
+       {AST::MacroFragSpec::PAT, {MATCH_ARROW, COMMA, EQUAL, PIPE, IF, IN}},
+       {AST::MacroFragSpec::PATH,
+	{MATCH_ARROW, COMMA, EQUAL, PIPE, SEMICOLON, COLON, RIGHT_ANGLE,
+	 RIGHT_SHIFT, LEFT_SQUARE, LEFT_CURLY, AS, WHERE}},
+       {AST::MacroFragSpec::TY,
+	{MATCH_ARROW, COMMA, EQUAL, PIPE, SEMICOLON, COLON, RIGHT_ANGLE,
+	 RIGHT_SHIFT, LEFT_SQUARE, LEFT_CURLY, AS, WHERE}},
+       {AST::MacroFragSpec::VIS,
+	{
+	  COMMA,
+	  IDENTIFIER /* FIXME: Other than `priv` */,
+	  LEFT_PAREN,
+	  LEFT_SQUARE,
+	  EXCLAM,
+	  ASTERISK,
+	  AMP,
+	  LOGICAL_AND,
+	  QUESTION_MARK,
+	  LIFETIME,
+	  LEFT_ANGLE,
+	  LEFT_SHIFT,
+	  SUPER,
+	  SELF,
+	  SELF_ALIAS,
+	  EXTERN_TOK,
+	  CRATE,
+	  UNDERSCORE,
+	  FOR,
+	  IMPL,
+	  FN_TOK,
+	  UNSAFE,
+	  TYPEOF,
+	  DYN
+	  // FIXME: Add Non kw identifiers
+	  // FIXME: Add $crate as valid
+	}}};
+
+  Location error_locus = match.get_match_locus ();
+  std::string kind_str = "fragment";
+  auto &allowed_toks = follow_set[last_match.get_frag_spec ().get_kind ()];
+
+  // There are two behaviors to handle here: If the follow-up match is a token,
+  // we want to check if it is allowed.
+  // If it is a fragment, repetition or matcher then we know that it will be
+  // an error.
+  // For repetitions and matchers we want to extract a proper location to report
+  // the error.
+  switch (match.get_macro_match_type ())
+    {
+      case AST::MacroMatch::Tok: {
+	auto tok = static_cast<const AST::Token *> (&match);
+	if (contains (allowed_toks, tok->get_id ()))
+	  return true;
+	kind_str = "token `"
+		   + std::string (get_token_description (tok->get_id ())) + "`";
+	error_locus = tok->get_match_locus ();
+	break;
+      }
+      break;
+      case AST::MacroMatch::Repetition: {
+	auto repetition
+	  = static_cast<const AST::MacroMatchRepetition *> (&match);
+	auto &matches = repetition->get_matches ();
+	auto first_frag = get_front_ptr (matches);
+	if (first_frag)
+	  return peculiar_fragment_match_compatible (last_match, *first_frag);
+	break;
+      }
+      case AST::MacroMatch::Matcher: {
+	auto matcher = static_cast<const AST::MacroMatcher *> (&match);
+	auto first_token = matcher->get_delim_type ();
+	TokenId delim_id;
+	switch (first_token)
+	  {
+	  case AST::PARENS:
+	    delim_id = LEFT_PAREN;
+	    break;
+	  case AST::SQUARE:
+	    delim_id = LEFT_SQUARE;
+	    break;
+	  case AST::CURLY:
+	    delim_id = LEFT_CURLY;
+	    break;
+	  default:
+	    gcc_unreachable ();
+	    break;
+	  }
+	if (contains (allowed_toks, delim_id))
+	  return true;
+	kind_str = "token `" + std::string (get_token_description (delim_id))
+		   + "` at start of matcher";
+	error_locus = matcher->get_match_locus ();
+	break;
+      }
+      case AST::MacroMatch::Fragment: {
+	auto last_spec = last_match.get_frag_spec ();
+	auto fragment = static_cast<const AST::MacroMatchFragment *> (&match);
+	if (last_spec.has_follow_set_fragment_restrictions ())
+	  return peculiar_fragment_match_compatible_fragment (
+	    last_spec, fragment->get_frag_spec (), match.get_match_locus ());
+      }
+      break;
+    }
+
+  rust_error_at (error_locus, "%s is not allowed after %<%s%> fragment",
+		 kind_str.c_str (),
+		 last_match.get_frag_spec ().as_string ().c_str ());
+  auto allowed_toks_str
+    = "`" + std::string (get_token_description (allowed_toks[0])) + "`";
+  for (size_t i = 1; i < allowed_toks.size (); i++)
+    allowed_toks_str
+      += ", `" + std::string (get_token_description (allowed_toks[i])) + "`";
+
+  rust_inform (error_locus, "allowed tokens are %s", allowed_toks_str.c_str ());
+
+  return false;
+}
+
+bool
+is_match_compatible (const AST::MacroMatch &last_match,
+		     const AST::MacroMatch &match)
+{
+  const AST::MacroMatch *new_last = nullptr;
+
+  // We want to "extract" the concerning matches. In cases such as matchers and
+  // repetitions, we actually store multiple matchers, but are only concerned
+  // about the follow-set ambiguities of certain elements.
+  // There are some cases where we can short-circuit the algorithm: There will
+  // never be restrictions on token literals, or on certain fragments which do
+  // not have a set of follow-restrictions.
+
+  switch (last_match.get_macro_match_type ())
+    {
+      // This is our main stop condition: When we are finally looking at the
+      // last match (or its actual last component), and it is a fragment, it
+      // may contain some follow up restrictions.
+      case AST::MacroMatch::Fragment: {
+	auto fragment
+	  = static_cast<const AST::MacroMatchFragment *> (&last_match);
+	if (fragment->get_frag_spec ().has_follow_set_restrictions ())
+	  return peculiar_fragment_match_compatible (*fragment, match);
+	else
+	  return true;
+      }
+      case AST::MacroMatch::Repetition: {
+	// A repetition on the left hand side means we want to make sure the
+	// last match of the repetition is compatible with the new match
+	auto repetition
+	  = static_cast<const AST::MacroMatchRepetition *> (&last_match);
+	new_last = get_back_ptr (repetition->get_matches ());
+	// If there are no matches in the matcher, then it can be followed by
+	// anything
+	if (!new_last)
+	  return true;
+	break;
+      }
+    case AST::MacroMatch::Matcher:
+    case AST::MacroMatch::Tok:
+      return true;
+    }
+
+  rust_assert (new_last);
+
+  // We check recursively until we find a terminating condition
+  // FIXME: Does expansion depth/limit matter here?
+  return is_match_compatible (*new_last, match);
+}
+} // namespace Rust
diff --git a/gcc/rust/parse/rust-parse.h b/gcc/rust/parse/rust-parse.h
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e4c5a2c5c9f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/gcc/rust/parse/rust-parse.h
@@ -0,0 +1,732 @@
+/* This file is part of GCC.
+
+GCC is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify
+it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
+the Free Software Foundation; either version 3, or (at your option)
+any later version.
+
+GCC is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
+but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
+MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
+GNU General Public License for more details.
+
+You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
+along with GCC; see the file COPYING3.  If not see
+<http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>. */
+
+#ifndef RUST_PARSE_H
+#define RUST_PARSE_H
+
+#include "rust-lex.h"
+#include "rust-ast-full.h"
+#include "rust-diagnostics.h"
+
+namespace Rust {
+/* HACK: used to resolve the expression-or-statement problem at the end of a
+ * block by allowing either to be returned (technically). Tagged union would
+ * probably take up the same amount of space. */
+struct ExprOrStmt
+{
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr;
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Stmt> stmt;
+
+  /* I was going to resist the urge to make this a real class and make it POD,
+   * but construction in steps is too difficult. So it'll just also have a
+   * constructor. */
+
+  // expression constructor
+  ExprOrStmt (std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr) : expr (std::move (expr)) {}
+
+  // statement constructor
+  ExprOrStmt (std::unique_ptr<AST::Stmt> stmt) : stmt (std::move (stmt)) {}
+
+  // macro constructor
+  ExprOrStmt (std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroInvocation> macro)
+    : expr (std::move (macro))
+  {}
+
+  // Returns whether this object is in an error state.
+  bool is_error () const
+  {
+    return (expr == nullptr && stmt == nullptr)
+	   || (expr != nullptr && stmt != nullptr);
+  }
+
+  // Returns an error state object.
+  static ExprOrStmt create_error () { return ExprOrStmt (nullptr, nullptr); }
+
+  ~ExprOrStmt () = default;
+
+  /* no copy constructors/assignment as simple object like this shouldn't
+   * require it */
+
+  // move constructors
+  ExprOrStmt (ExprOrStmt &&other) = default;
+  ExprOrStmt &operator= (ExprOrStmt &&other) = default;
+
+private:
+  // private constructor only used for creating error state expr or stmt objects
+  ExprOrStmt (AST::Expr *expr, AST::Stmt *stmt) : expr (expr), stmt (stmt) {}
+
+  // make this work: have a disambiguation specifically for known statements
+  // (i.e. ';' and 'let'). then, have a special "parse expr or stmt" function
+  // that returns this type. inside it, it parses an expression, and then
+  // determines whether to return expr or stmt via whether the next token is a
+  // semicolon. should be able to disambiguate inside that function between
+  // stmts with blocks and without blocks.
+};
+
+/* Restrictions on parsing used to signal that certain ambiguous grammar
+ * features should be parsed in a certain way. */
+struct ParseRestrictions
+{
+  bool can_be_struct_expr = true;
+  /* Whether the expression was entered from a unary expression - prevents stuff
+   * like struct exprs being parsed from a dereference. */
+  bool entered_from_unary = false;
+  bool expr_can_be_null = false;
+  bool expr_can_be_stmt = false;
+  bool consume_semi = true;
+};
+
+// Parser implementation for gccrs.
+// TODO: if updated to C++20, ManagedTokenSource would be useful as a concept
+template <typename ManagedTokenSource> class Parser
+{
+public:
+  /**
+   * Consume a token, reporting an error if it isn't the next token
+   *
+   * @param t ID of the token to consume
+   *
+   * @return true if the token was next, false if it wasn't found
+   */
+  bool skip_token (TokenId t);
+
+  /**
+   * Same as `skip_token` but allows for failure without necessarily reporting
+   * an error
+   *
+   * @param t ID of the token to consume
+   *
+   * @return true if the token was next, false if it wasn't found
+   */
+  bool maybe_skip_token (TokenId t);
+
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr>
+  parse_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = AST::AttrVec (),
+	      ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::LiteralExpr> parse_literal_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs
+							= AST::AttrVec ());
+
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::BlockExpr>
+  parse_block_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = AST::AttrVec (),
+		    Location pratt_parsed_loc = Linemap::unknown_location ());
+
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Item> parse_item (bool called_from_statement);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> parse_pattern ();
+
+  /**
+   * Parse a statement
+   *
+   * Statement : ';'
+   *    | Item
+   *    | LetStatement
+   *    | ExpressionStatement
+   *    | MacroInvocationSemi
+   */
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Stmt> parse_stmt (ParseRestrictions restrictions
+					 = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> parse_type (bool save_errors = true);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternalItem> parse_external_item ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitItem> parse_trait_item ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::InherentImplItem> parse_inherent_impl_item ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitImplItem> parse_trait_impl_item ();
+  AST::PathInExpression parse_path_in_expression ();
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::LifetimeParam> > parse_lifetime_params ();
+  AST::Visibility parse_visibility ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::IdentifierPattern> parse_identifier_pattern ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::TokenTree> parse_token_tree ();
+  AST::Attribute parse_attribute_body ();
+  AST::AttrVec parse_inner_attributes ();
+
+private:
+  void skip_after_semicolon ();
+  void skip_after_end ();
+  void skip_after_end_block ();
+  void skip_after_next_block ();
+  void skip_after_end_attribute ();
+
+  const_TokenPtr expect_token (TokenId t);
+  void unexpected_token (const_TokenPtr t);
+  bool skip_generics_right_angle ();
+
+  void parse_statement_seq (bool (Parser::*done) ());
+
+  // AST-related stuff - maybe move or something?
+  AST::Attribute parse_inner_attribute ();
+  AST::AttrVec parse_outer_attributes ();
+  AST::Attribute parse_outer_attribute ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::AttrInput> parse_attr_input ();
+  AST::Attribute parse_doc_comment ();
+
+  // Path-related
+  AST::SimplePath parse_simple_path ();
+  AST::SimplePathSegment parse_simple_path_segment ();
+  AST::TypePath parse_type_path ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePathSegment> parse_type_path_segment ();
+  AST::PathIdentSegment parse_path_ident_segment ();
+  AST::GenericArg parse_generic_arg ();
+  AST::GenericArgs parse_path_generic_args ();
+  AST::GenericArgsBinding parse_generic_args_binding ();
+  AST::TypePathFunction parse_type_path_function (Location locus);
+  AST::PathExprSegment parse_path_expr_segment ();
+  AST::QualifiedPathInExpression
+  // When given a pratt_parsed_loc, use it as the location of the
+  // first token parsed in the expression (the parsing of that first
+  // token should be skipped).
+  parse_qualified_path_in_expression (Location pratt_parsed_loc
+				      = Linemap::unknown_location ());
+  AST::QualifiedPathType
+  parse_qualified_path_type (Location pratt_parsed_loc
+			     = Linemap::unknown_location ());
+  AST::QualifiedPathInType parse_qualified_path_in_type ();
+
+  // Token tree or macro related
+  AST::DelimTokenTree parse_delim_token_tree ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroRulesDefinition>
+  parse_macro_rules_def (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroInvocation>
+  parse_macro_invocation_semi (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroInvocation>
+  parse_macro_invocation (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  AST::MacroRule parse_macro_rule ();
+  AST::MacroMatcher parse_macro_matcher ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatch> parse_macro_match ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatchFragment> parse_macro_match_fragment ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatchRepetition> parse_macro_match_repetition ();
+
+  // Top-level item-related
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::VisItem> parse_vis_item (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroItem> parse_macro_item (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+
+  // VisItem subclass-related
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Module> parse_module (AST::Visibility vis,
+					     AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternCrate>
+  parse_extern_crate (AST::Visibility vis, AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::UseDeclaration>
+  parse_use_decl (AST::Visibility vis, AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTree> parse_use_tree ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Function> parse_function (AST::Visibility vis,
+						 AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  AST::FunctionQualifiers parse_function_qualifiers ();
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam> >
+  parse_generic_params_in_angles ();
+  template <typename EndTokenPred>
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam> >
+  parse_generic_params (EndTokenPred is_end_token);
+  template <typename EndTokenPred>
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>
+  parse_generic_param (EndTokenPred is_end_token);
+
+  template <typename EndTokenPred>
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::LifetimeParam> >
+  parse_lifetime_params (EndTokenPred is_end_token);
+  std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam> parse_lifetime_params_objs ();
+  template <typename EndTokenPred>
+  std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam>
+  parse_lifetime_params_objs (EndTokenPred is_end_token);
+  template <typename ParseFunction, typename EndTokenPred>
+  auto parse_non_ptr_sequence (
+    ParseFunction parsing_function, EndTokenPred is_end_token,
+    std::string error_msg = "failed to parse generic param in generic params")
+    -> std::vector<decltype (parsing_function ())>;
+  AST::LifetimeParam parse_lifetime_param ();
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParam> > parse_type_params ();
+  template <typename EndTokenPred>
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParam> >
+  parse_type_params (EndTokenPred is_end_token);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParam> parse_type_param ();
+  template <typename EndTokenPred>
+  std::vector<AST::FunctionParam>
+  parse_function_params (EndTokenPred is_end_token);
+  AST::FunctionParam parse_function_param ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> parse_function_return_type ();
+  AST::WhereClause parse_where_clause ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::WhereClauseItem> parse_where_clause_item ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::LifetimeWhereClauseItem>
+  parse_lifetime_where_clause_item ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeBoundWhereClauseItem>
+  parse_type_bound_where_clause_item ();
+  std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam> parse_for_lifetimes ();
+  template <typename EndTokenPred>
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound> >
+  parse_type_param_bounds (EndTokenPred is_end_token);
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound> > parse_type_param_bounds ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound> parse_type_param_bound ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitBound> parse_trait_bound ();
+  std::vector<AST::Lifetime> parse_lifetime_bounds ();
+  template <typename EndTokenPred>
+  std::vector<AST::Lifetime> parse_lifetime_bounds (EndTokenPred is_end_token);
+  AST::Lifetime parse_lifetime ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeAlias> parse_type_alias (AST::Visibility vis,
+						    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Struct> parse_struct (AST::Visibility vis,
+					     AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  std::vector<AST::StructField> parse_struct_fields ();
+  template <typename EndTokenPred>
+  std::vector<AST::StructField> parse_struct_fields (EndTokenPred is_end_token);
+  AST::StructField parse_struct_field ();
+  std::vector<AST::TupleField> parse_tuple_fields ();
+  AST::TupleField parse_tuple_field ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Enum> parse_enum (AST::Visibility vis,
+					 AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem> > parse_enum_items ();
+  template <typename EndTokenPred>
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem> >
+  parse_enum_items (EndTokenPred is_end_token);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem> parse_enum_item ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Union> parse_union (AST::Visibility vis,
+					   AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ConstantItem>
+  parse_const_item (AST::Visibility vis, AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::StaticItem> parse_static_item (AST::Visibility vis,
+						      AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Trait> parse_trait (AST::Visibility vis,
+					   AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitItemType>
+  parse_trait_type (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitItemConst>
+  parse_trait_const (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  AST::SelfParam parse_self_param ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Impl> parse_impl (AST::Visibility vis,
+					 AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::InherentImplItem>
+  parse_inherent_impl_function_or_method (AST::Visibility vis,
+					  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitImplItem>
+  parse_trait_impl_function_or_method (AST::Visibility vis,
+				       AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternBlock>
+  parse_extern_block (AST::Visibility vis, AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  AST::NamedFunctionParam parse_named_function_param (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs
+						      = AST::AttrVec ());
+  AST::Method parse_method ();
+
+  // Expression-related (Pratt parsed)
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr>
+  parse_expr (int right_binding_power,
+	      AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = AST::AttrVec (),
+	      ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr>
+  null_denotation (const_TokenPtr t, AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = AST::AttrVec (),
+		   ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr>
+  left_denotation (const_TokenPtr t, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+		   AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = AST::AttrVec (),
+		   ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr>
+  parse_arithmetic_or_logical_expr (
+    const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs, AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr::ExprType expr_type,
+    ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr>
+  parse_binary_plus_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+			  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+			  ParseRestrictions restrictions
+			  = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr>
+  parse_binary_minus_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+			   AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+			   ParseRestrictions restrictions
+			   = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr>
+  parse_binary_mult_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+			  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+			  ParseRestrictions restrictions
+			  = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr>
+  parse_binary_div_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+			 AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+			 ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr>
+  parse_binary_mod_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+			 AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+			 ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr>
+  parse_bitwise_and_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+			  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+			  ParseRestrictions restrictions
+			  = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr>
+  parse_bitwise_or_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+			 AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+			 ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr>
+  parse_bitwise_xor_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+			  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+			  ParseRestrictions restrictions
+			  = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr>
+  parse_left_shift_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+			 AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+			 ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr>
+  parse_right_shift_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+			  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+			  ParseRestrictions restrictions
+			  = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ComparisonExpr>
+  parse_comparison_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+			 AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+			 AST::ComparisonExpr::ExprType expr_type,
+			 ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ComparisonExpr>
+  parse_binary_equal_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+			   AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+			   ParseRestrictions restrictions
+			   = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ComparisonExpr> parse_binary_not_equal_expr (
+    const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+    ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ComparisonExpr> parse_binary_greater_than_expr (
+    const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+    ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ComparisonExpr> parse_binary_less_than_expr (
+    const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+    ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ComparisonExpr> parse_binary_greater_equal_expr (
+    const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+    ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ComparisonExpr> parse_binary_less_equal_expr (
+    const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+    ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::LazyBooleanExpr>
+  parse_lazy_or_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+		      AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+		      ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::LazyBooleanExpr>
+  parse_lazy_and_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+		       AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+		       ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeCastExpr>
+  parse_type_cast_expr (const_TokenPtr tok,
+			std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr_to_cast,
+			AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+			ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::AssignmentExpr>
+  parse_assig_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+		    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+		    ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr> parse_compound_assignment_expr (
+    const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs, AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr::ExprType expr_type,
+    ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr>
+  parse_plus_assig_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+			 AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+			 ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr>
+  parse_minus_assig_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+			  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+			  ParseRestrictions restrictions
+			  = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr>
+  parse_mult_assig_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+			 AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+			 ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr>
+  parse_div_assig_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+			AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+			ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr>
+  parse_mod_assig_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+			AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+			ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr>
+  parse_and_assig_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+			AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+			ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr>
+  parse_or_assig_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+		       AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+		       ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr>
+  parse_xor_assig_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+			AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+			ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr> parse_left_shift_assig_expr (
+    const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+    ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr> parse_right_shift_assig_expr (
+    const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+    ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::AwaitExpr>
+  parse_await_expr (const_TokenPtr tok,
+		    std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr_to_await,
+		    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::MethodCallExpr> parse_method_call_expr (
+    const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> receiver_expr,
+    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+    ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::CallExpr> parse_function_call_expr (
+    const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> function_expr,
+    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+    ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::RangeExpr> parse_led_range_exclusive_expr (
+    const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+    ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::RangeExpr>
+  parse_nud_range_exclusive_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::RangeFromToInclExpr> parse_range_inclusive_expr (
+    const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
+    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+    ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::RangeToInclExpr>
+  parse_range_to_inclusive_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::TupleIndexExpr> parse_tuple_index_expr (
+    const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> tuple_expr,
+    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+    ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::FieldAccessExpr> parse_field_access_expr (
+    const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> struct_expr,
+    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+    ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ArrayIndexExpr>
+  parse_index_expr (const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> array_expr,
+		    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+		    ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroInvocation> parse_macro_invocation_partial (
+    AST::PathInExpression path, AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+    ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::StructExprStruct>
+  parse_struct_expr_struct_partial (AST::PathInExpression path,
+				    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::CallExpr>
+  parse_struct_expr_tuple_partial (AST::PathInExpression path,
+				   AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  AST::PathInExpression parse_path_in_expression_pratt (const_TokenPtr tok);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ClosureExpr>
+  parse_closure_expr_pratt (const_TokenPtr tok,
+			    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = AST::AttrVec ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::TupleIndexExpr> parse_tuple_index_expr_float (
+    const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> tuple_expr,
+    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+    ParseRestrictions restrictions = ParseRestrictions ());
+
+  // Expression-related (non-Pratt parsed)
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ExprWithBlock>
+  parse_expr_with_block (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ExprWithoutBlock>
+  parse_expr_without_block (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = AST::AttrVec (),
+			    ParseRestrictions restrictions
+			    = ParseRestrictions ());
+  // When given a pratt_parsed_loc, use it as the location of the
+  // first token parsed in the expression (the parsing of that first
+  // token should be skipped).
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::IfExpr>
+  parse_if_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = AST::AttrVec (),
+		 Location pratt_parsed_loc = Linemap::unknown_location ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::IfLetExpr>
+  parse_if_let_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = AST::AttrVec (),
+		     Location pratt_parsed_loc = Linemap::unknown_location ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::LoopExpr>
+  parse_loop_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = AST::AttrVec (),
+		   AST::LoopLabel label = AST::LoopLabel::error (),
+		   Location pratt_parsed_loc = Linemap::unknown_location ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::WhileLoopExpr>
+  parse_while_loop_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = AST::AttrVec (),
+			 AST::LoopLabel label = AST::LoopLabel::error (),
+			 Location pratt_parsed_loc
+			 = Linemap::unknown_location ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::WhileLetLoopExpr>
+  parse_while_let_loop_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = AST::AttrVec (),
+			     AST::LoopLabel label = AST::LoopLabel::error ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ForLoopExpr>
+  parse_for_loop_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = AST::AttrVec (),
+		       AST::LoopLabel label = AST::LoopLabel::error ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::MatchExpr>
+  parse_match_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = AST::AttrVec (),
+		    Location pratt_parsed_loc = Linemap::unknown_location ());
+  AST::MatchArm parse_match_arm ();
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> >
+  parse_match_arm_patterns (TokenId end_token_id);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::BaseLoopExpr>
+  parse_labelled_loop_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = AST::AttrVec ());
+  AST::LoopLabel parse_loop_label ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::AsyncBlockExpr>
+  parse_async_block_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = AST::AttrVec ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::GroupedExpr> parse_grouped_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs
+							= AST::AttrVec ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ClosureExpr> parse_closure_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs
+							= AST::AttrVec ());
+  AST::ClosureParam parse_closure_param ();
+
+  // When given a pratt_parsed_loc, use it as the location of the
+  // first token parsed in the expression (the parsing of that first
+  // token should be skipped).
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ReturnExpr>
+  parse_return_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = AST::AttrVec (),
+		     Location pratt_parsed_loc = Linemap::unknown_location ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::BreakExpr>
+  parse_break_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = AST::AttrVec (),
+		    Location pratt_parsed_loc = Linemap::unknown_location ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ContinueExpr>
+  parse_continue_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = AST::AttrVec (),
+		       Location pratt_parsed_loc
+		       = Linemap::unknown_location ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::UnsafeBlockExpr>
+  parse_unsafe_block_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = AST::AttrVec (),
+			   Location pratt_parsed_loc
+			   = Linemap::unknown_location ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ArrayExpr>
+  parse_array_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = AST::AttrVec (),
+		    Location pratt_parsed_loc = Linemap::unknown_location ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ExprWithoutBlock>
+  parse_grouped_or_tuple_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = AST::AttrVec (),
+			       Location pratt_parsed_loc
+			       = Linemap::unknown_location ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::StructExprField> parse_struct_expr_field ();
+  bool will_be_expr_with_block ();
+
+  // Type-related
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeNoBounds> parse_type_no_bounds ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeNoBounds> parse_slice_or_array_type ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::RawPointerType> parse_raw_pointer_type ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ReferenceType> parse_reference_type ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::BareFunctionType>
+  parse_bare_function_type (std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam> for_lifetimes);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> parse_paren_prefixed_type ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeNoBounds> parse_paren_prefixed_type_no_bounds ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> parse_for_prefixed_type ();
+  AST::MaybeNamedParam parse_maybe_named_param (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+
+  // Statement-related
+
+  /**
+   *Parse a let-statement
+   * LetStatement :
+   * 	OuterAttribute*
+   * 		'let' PatternNoTopAlt ( ':' Type )? ('=' Expression )? ';'
+   *
+   * @param allow_no_semi Allow parsing a let-statement without expecting a
+   * 		semicolon to follow it
+   */
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::LetStmt> parse_let_stmt (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+						ParseRestrictions restrictions
+						= ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ExprStmt> parse_expr_stmt (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+						  ParseRestrictions restrictions
+						  = ParseRestrictions ());
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ExprStmtWithBlock>
+  parse_expr_stmt_with_block (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ExprStmtWithoutBlock>
+  parse_expr_stmt_without_block (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
+				 ParseRestrictions restrictions
+				 = ParseRestrictions ());
+  ExprOrStmt parse_stmt_or_expr_without_block ();
+  ExprOrStmt parse_stmt_or_expr_with_block (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  ExprOrStmt parse_macro_invocation_maybe_semi (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+  ExprOrStmt parse_path_based_stmt_or_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+
+  // Pattern-related
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> parse_literal_or_range_pattern ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::RangePatternBound> parse_range_pattern_bound ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::ReferencePattern> parse_reference_pattern ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> parse_grouped_or_tuple_pattern ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::SlicePattern> parse_slice_pattern ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> parse_ident_leading_pattern ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::TupleStructItems> parse_tuple_struct_items ();
+  AST::StructPatternElements parse_struct_pattern_elems ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::StructPatternField> parse_struct_pattern_field ();
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::StructPatternField>
+  parse_struct_pattern_field_partial (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs);
+
+  int left_binding_power (const_TokenPtr token);
+
+  bool done_end ();
+  bool done_end_or_else ();
+  bool done_end_of_file ();
+
+  void add_error (Error error) { error_table.push_back (std::move (error)); }
+
+public:
+  // Construct parser with specified "managed" token source.
+  Parser (ManagedTokenSource &tokenSource) : lexer (tokenSource) {}
+
+  // Parse items without parsing an entire crate. This function is the main
+  // parsing loop of AST::Crate::parse_crate().
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Item> > parse_items ();
+
+  // Main entry point for parser.
+  std::unique_ptr<AST::Crate> parse_crate ();
+
+  // Dumps all lexer output.
+  void debug_dump_lex_output (std::ostream &out);
+  void debug_dump_ast_output (AST::Crate &crate, std::ostream &out);
+
+  // Returns whether any parsing errors have occurred.
+  bool has_errors () const { return !error_table.empty (); }
+  // Remove all parsing errors from the table
+  void clear_errors () { error_table.clear (); }
+
+  // Get a reference to the list of errors encountered
+  std::vector<Error> &get_errors () { return error_table; }
+
+  const ManagedTokenSource &get_token_source () const { return lexer; }
+
+  const_TokenPtr peek_current_token () { return lexer.peek_token (0); }
+
+private:
+  // The token source (usually lexer) associated with the parser.
+  ManagedTokenSource &lexer;
+  // The error list.
+  std::vector<Error> error_table;
+  // The names of inline modules while parsing.
+  std::vector<std::string> inline_module_stack;
+
+  class InlineModuleStackScope
+  {
+  private:
+    Parser &parser;
+
+  public:
+    InlineModuleStackScope (Parser &parser, std::string name) : parser (parser)
+    {
+      parser.inline_module_stack.emplace_back (std::move (name));
+    }
+    ~InlineModuleStackScope () { parser.inline_module_stack.pop_back (); }
+  };
+};
+
+std::string
+extract_module_path (const AST::AttrVec &inner_attrs,
+		     const AST::AttrVec &outer_attrs, const std::string &name);
+
+/**
+ * Check if a MacroMatch is allowed to follow the last parsed MacroMatch.
+ *
+ * @param last_match Last matcher parsed before the current match
+ * @param match Current matcher to check
+ *
+ * @return true if the follow-up is valid, false otherwise
+ */
+bool
+is_match_compatible (const AST::MacroMatch &last_match,
+		     const AST::MacroMatch &current_match);
+} // namespace Rust
+
+// as now template, include implementations of all methods
+#include "rust-parse-impl.h"
+
+#endif // RUST_PARSE_H
